The Commas


The comma is the most frequently used punctuation mark, but it is also the most often misused. Commas make reading sentences easier because they separate the parts of sentences.
Commas with Independent Clauses
Use a comma before the coordinating conjunctions and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet when they join two independent clauses. (Remember that an independent clause must have both a subject and a verb.)
Independent clauses: The instructor put us in small groups, and she gave us a new assignment.
Independent clauses: The essay was difficult to read, but I learned some new vocabulary words.
Hint: Do not use a comma when a single subject has two verbs.
Single subject: The instructor put us in small groups and gave us a new assignment.
The coordinating conjunction (and) joins two verbs, but not two independent clauses. Only if the second verb has its own subject should you add a comma.
Independent clauses: The instructor put us in small groups, and she gave us a new assignment.
Each verb has its own subject, so and joins two independent clauses. Notice the comma.
Commas with Items in a Series
Use commas to separate items in a series of items joined by a coordinating conjunction. This means that you should put a comma between all items in a series.
Series of nouns: The class required that we read two novels, twenty short stories, and twelve poems.
Series of verbs: The students exchanged their essays, read them, and gave each other suggestions.
Notice the comma before and in each series.
Commas with Introductory Words
Use a comma to set off an introductory word, phrase, or clause from the rest of its sentence. If you are unsure whether to add a comma, try reading the sentence with your reader in mind. If you want your reader to pause after the introductory word or phrase, you should insert a comma.
Introductory word: Actually, the class was more interesting than I thought it would be.
Introductory phrase: To save time, I did my homework during my lunch break.
Introductory clause: When the professor wrote on the board, we began taking notes.
Commas with Coordinate Adjectives
Sometimes adjectives in a series preceding a noun need commas, but sometimes they do not. Look at these two examples.
Adjectives with commas: The long, boring lecture is finally over.
Adjectives without commas: Three new Spanish novels were checked out of the library.
The first example has a series of coordinate adjectives—that is, the adjectives both modify the noun equally. In this case, both adjectives are descriptive. The second example has a series of cumulative adjectives—adjectives that combine to modify the noun as a whole. In this case, the three adjectives together modify the noun.

So how do you know whether or not to use commas? You can use one of two tests. One test is to insert the word and between the adjectives. If the sentence makes sense, use a comma. Another test is to switch the order of the adjectives. If the sentence still reads clearly, use a comma between the two words.
Test 1: The long and boring lecture is finally over. OK, so use a comma
Test 2: The boring, long lecture is finally over. OK, so use a comma
Test 1: Three and new and Spanish novels were checked out of the library. NO comma
Test 2: Three Spanish new novels were checked out of the library. NO comma
Commas with Interrupters
Use a comma before and after a word or phrase that interrupts the flow of a sentence. These interrupters are not necessary for understanding the main point of a sentence. So setting them off makes it easier for readers to recognize the main point.

Appositives
Appositives are words or phrases that identify, or could replace, another element in a sentence. Appositives are put next to the word that they identify.

If an appositive is essential to the meaning of a sentence, do not put commas around it. If an appositive just adds optional information, it is nonrestrictive. Put commas around nonrestrictive words and expressions to show the reader that the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Look at the following examples.
Nonrestrictive appositive: Amy's brother, Joseph, is studying engineering.
(Amy has just one brother.)

Essential appositive: Amy's brother Joseph is studying engineering.
(Amy has more than one brother.)
Nonrestrictive Clauses
A very common type of interrupter is a clause that begins with who, whose, which, when, or where and is not necessary for understanding the main point of the sentence. These clauses are known as nonrestrictive clauses because they do not restrict, or limit, the meaning of the sentence.
Nonrestrictive clause: The new instructor, who came here from UC Berkeley, is teaching the American literature class.
Because the information "who came here from UC Berkeley" is not necessary for understanding the main idea of the sentence, the clause is set off with commas.
Nonrestrictive clause: The public library, which is downtown, provides many DVDs.
The main point here is that the public library provides DVDs. Since the other information isn't necessary to understanding the sentence, the clause is set off with commas.

Hint: Do not use commas with who, whose, which, when, or where if the information is necessary for understanding the main point of the sentence.
Essential clause: The man who is running for office shook my hand.
The information in the who clause is necessary to understanding which man did the hand shaking. So the clause is not set off with commas.

Hint: Do not use commas to set off clauses beginning with that. Clauses beginning with that always give essential information.
Essential clause: The movie theater that is on Elm Street is showing Jurassic Park III.
Transitional and Parenthetical Words and Expressions
Transitional words and expressions link sentences and paragraphs together. Parenthetical words and expressions add comments to a sentence. Put commas around transitional and parenthetical words and expressions. Look at the following examples.
Transitional word: I knew the exam would be hard. I didn't study for it, however, because I had to work late.
Parenthetical phrase: The city with the most hotels, according to this travel journal, is Las Vegas.
Commas in Dialogue
Use commas to mark direct quotations. A direct quotation records a person's exact spoken or written words. Commas set off the exact words from the rest of the sentence, making it easier to understand who said what. Notice the use of commas in the following examples.
Direct quotation: The instructor said, "The exam will be next Friday."
Direct quotation: "The exam will be next Friday," the instructor said.
Direct quotation: "The exam," said the instructor, "will be next Friday."
If a person is addressed directly, use a comma after the person's name.
Direct address: "Professor Williams, here is my revised paper," the student said.
Hint: If a quotation ends with a question mark or an exclamation point, do not use a comma. Only one punctuation mark is needed.
Not: "What was the question?," he asked.
Correct: "What was the question?" he asked.
Other Uses of Commas
Other commas clarify information in everyday writing.
Numbers: What is 2,667,999 divided by 10,300?
Dates: Mike and Melissa were married on August 1, 2000, in Cincinnati.
(Notice that there is a comma both before and after the year.)
Addresses: Nicole moved from Lamont, California, to 8900 New Fork Lane, Aspen, CO 81612.
(Notice that there is no comma between the state and the zip code.)
States: They moved from San Antonio, Texas, to Phoenix, Arizona.
(Notice that there is a comma both before and after a state.)
Letters: Dear Alyson, Yours truly,
Unnecessary Commas
Avoid using commas in the following situations.

Between a Subject and Verb
Not: The girl who baked the cookies, brought them to class.
Correct: The girl who baked the cookies brought them to class.
Between a Verb and Its Object
Not: The applicant sent, a gracious thank-you letter.
Correct: The applicant sent a gracious thank-you letter.
Between Pairs of Words, Phrases, or Clauses Joined by a Coordinating Conjunction
Not: The manager was successful in looking for, and hiring a new employee.
Correct: The manager was successful in looking for and hiring a new employee.

After a Conjunction (and, but, because, although, and so on)
Not: The new owners were pleased with their pets, and, the pets were happy too.
Correct: The new owners were pleased with their pets, and the pets were happy too.


________________________________________
The comma tells the reader to pause, just as the blinking yellow light tells a driver to slow down and proceed with caution. Some writers can tell where a comma is needed by reading their prose aloud and inserting a comma where there seems to be a clear pause in the sentence. This may work much of the time if you read the sentence carefully and accurately. However, this procedure is not the most precise way to approach comma usage. Below are four general ways to use commas with a reasonable degree of certainty.
1) Between Items in a Series
When you are listing three or more items in a sentence, simply place a comma between each member of the list. Here are two examples:
Mr. Sanchez used the money that he won from the sweepstakes to buy a house, a car, and a small yacht.

We will purchase the stock if the price is lowered to $30 per share, if we are allowed to buy a block of over 10,000 shares, and if we receive a guarantee that no new shares will be created in the next fiscal year.
The commas above clearly mark where one member of the list leaves off and the next one begins. There is no mystery in how to use the comma in these kinds of sentences. What is often unclear, however, is whether to include the comma between the last and second-to-last items in a list. In the past, it was considered improper to omit the final comma in a series, but modern writers believe that the conjunction (and, but, or) does the same thing as a comma: it marks the place between two items in the set. These writers have argued that a sentence is more economical without an unneeded comma. As a result, you now have the option to choose whether to include the final comma.
Nevertheless, many people still follow the old rule and expect to see the final comma. Also, if your list is rather complex, omitting the comma may confuse the reader about where the second-to-last item leaves off and the last begins. In this case, of course, you would want to include the comma in order to avoid confusion. Perhaps it is best to get into the habit of always using the comma between the last two items in order to avoid all controversy. You do, however, have the option to omit it.
2) Between Two Sentences
You’ll remember that a semicolon is used to connect two sentences. However, more often we glue two sentences together with a comma and conjunction (such as and or but). In fact, if you examine a document you have written recently, you are likely to find many such sentences; they’re so common that you don’t even realize you are writing them. When you do put two sentences together with a conjunction, you must also include a comma. That is, the conjunction and comma are equivalent to a semicolon when you’re connecting sentences. Here are three examples:
The Suncom Corporation has just acquired the OILCO company, and it has agreed to sell OILCO’s oil-drilling rights in Texas as soon as possible.

I knew that the price of IBM stock would increase after it entered the home computer market, but I had no idea that the price would skyrocket.

I first conducted a thorough audit of the company, and I then interviewed the manager to try to determine how much money was missing.
Each sentence above is made up of two sentences glued together with a comma and conjunction. For example, the first sentence is made up of the following:
The Suncom Corporation has just acquired the OILCO company.

It has agreed to sell OILCO’s oil-drilling rights in Texas as soon as possible.
All you need remember is this: when you’re connecting two sentences with a conjunction, you must also include a comma because the conjunction and comma work together as a team. Perhaps this diagram will help you remember:

SENTENCE , conjunction SENTENCE
Often you may use a conjunction but not have a complete sentence on both sides of it. In this case you do not need a comma. For example, you could easily rewrite the above sentences so that one part of each sentence is not a full sentence:
The Suncom Corporation has just acquired the OILCO company and has agreed to sell OILCO’s oil-drilling rights in Texas as soon as possible.

I knew the price of IBM stock would increase after it entered the home computer market but had no idea that the price would skyrocket.

I first conducted a thorough audit of the company and then interviewed the manager to try to determine how much money was missing.
Because in the above examples you do not have full sentences on both sites of the conjunction, there’s no need to include a comma.
One last bit of advice: if your sentence is very short (perhaps 5 to 10 words), you do have the option of omitting the comma if you wish. You have this option because your reader can usually understand a short sentence more readily than a long one, and therefore you would not need a comma for readability. Here is an example:
Mr. Santana is old and he is wise.
This sentence is so short that you may omit the comma. Remember, punctuation is meant to help the writer and the reader, not to make their jobs more difficult. That’s why you may opt to omit the comma between these two short sentences.
3) To Attach Words to the Front or Back of Your Sentence
Most of the sentences we compose really consist of a short core sentence with many details added to that core sentence. Frequently, we add information to sentences by attaching one or more words to the front or back of the core sentence. You don’t need to memorize seven or eight rules naming each of the different structures you can add to your sentence. Instead, remember that when you add information to the front or back of a sentence, you will want to alert your want readers in order to help them clearly understand your message. Here are four examples:
Certainly, Joan is a successful salesperson.

Although she flunked chemistry and barely passed math, Joan is a good student.

In order to help save the company from bankruptcy, we sold shares in the company at discount prices.

Joan is a good student, although she flunked chemistry and barely passed math.
If you examine the sentences above, you will see where the writer has attached words to the front or back of each core sentence. Even when you add one word, such as certainlyin the first example, you want your reader to know where the real sentence begins. This is why you place the comma there. If you read the sentences carefully, you’ll also notice a natural pause where the comma is situated.
4) On Both Sides of a Nonessential Component
The three uses of the comma just discussed are quite easy. You should be able to tell when those commas are needed or not. When you are proofreading your own prose, it will be clear to you whether you have a list of items or not, whether you’re attaching two sentences with a conjunction or not, and whether you are tacking words onto the front or back of your sentence or not. The fourth use of the comma, however, is a little more complex because you must make a judgment call. Nevertheless, even this fourth way to use a comma is relatively simple.
Often, you will insert a group of words into the middle of a sentence. Sometimes this group of words will need to be set off by commas from the rest of the sentence, and sometimes you will not need commas. In order to tell whether you need commas, you must make a judgment about whether the added words are essential to the meaning of the sentence or whether they simply provide extra detail. Let’s use an analogy to illustrate this concept. The modern stereo system is what we call a component system in that it is made up of many different components: an amplifier, receiver, CD player, tape deck, and various speakers. With most stereo systems, you have the option of removing certain components and adding new ones. For example, you may decide to unplug your tape deck but retain the CD player. The various components are optional or nonessential to the system itself. Similarly, you often add or delete components from your sentences. If a component (a group of words in this case) is added to a sentence but does not affect the meaning of the sentence when it is removed, then that component is not essential.
In order to tell a reader that a group of words is a nonessential component, you place commas in front and in back of the group of words. However, if omitting the group of words would drastically change the meaning of the sentence, then those words are not a component; rather, they are essential to the meaning of the sentence. In that case, you would not want to put commas on either side of the component so that the reader knows that those words are absolutely important to the meaning of the sentence. For example, look carefully at the following sentences:
Ms. Johnson, who is the company president, will present the award at our annual dinner.

Banks which hold over a billion dollars in assets are rare.
In the first sentence, the information about Johnson being the company president has no bearing on the main idea of the sentence: that she will present the awards at the annual dinner. Since this information is added or extra, we let the reader know it is an interchangeable component (like the stereo’s tape deck) by placing commas on either side of it. In contrast, the second sentence contains information that is absolutely essential to the meaning of the sentence: “which hold over a billion dollars in assets.” If you were to place commas around these words, you would be erroneously telling the reader that the words constitute a nonessential component. For example, look at this sentence:
Banks, which hold over a billion dollars in assets, are rare.
This sentence tells the reader that the main idea is that “banks are rare.” Certainly, banks are far from rare, but by enclosing the information in commas you have said that they are.
Although we’ve spent some time discussing this use of the comma, it isn’t very difficult to master. Simply remember that when you are proofreading you should check your sentences for essential and nonessential components.


Last month I showed how to unstuff a sentence by removing unnecessary words. This month I’ll offer a quick-and-dirty guide to punctuating a sentence. Nothing that follows is meant to substitute for the nuanced explanations of what’s usually called a writing handbook, the sort of book that college students purchase in a first-semester writing course. These five rules though have the virtue of being manageable, which is difficult to say of a 1,000-page book. In each paragraph that follows, the sentences illustrate the punctuation rule involved. Note that I’m avoiding almost all grammatical terminology. Instead, I’m emphasizing a small number of sentence patterns.
Rule one
If your sentence begins with an introductory element, put a comma after it. Even if it’s a short element, put a comma after it. In time, you’ll be putting this comma in without having to think about it.
Rule two
Any element which interrupts the movement of the sentence, whether it’s big or small, should be set off with commas. This sentence, like the first, also has an element set off with commas. An element that appears at the end of the sentence should also be set off with a comma, as I’m showing here.
Rule three
Items in a series should be separated with commas. What do I mean by “items in a series”? Wine, women, and song. Life, love, and laughter. Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young.
Rule four
Complete sentences that are joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) need a comma before the coordinating conjunction. That might seem obvious, but this comma frequently gets left out. Putting it in makes a sentence more readable, and any reader appreciates that.
Rule five
Complete sentences that are joined without a coordinating conjunction need a semi-colon instead of a comma; the semi-colon shows the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next. Semi-colons are often followed by a connecting word or phrase; however, a connecting word or phrase is not necessary. Sentences joined with only a comma are called comma splices; they’re among the most common errors that come up in college writing.
(Note: In the next-to-last sentence in the previous paragraph, there’s a comma after however because it’s an introductory element in the second sentence.)
Fixing comma splices requires familiarity with two recurring sentence patterns. The first involves a complete sentence, a semi-colon, and another complete sentence:
[complete sentence]; [complete sentence].
Some examples:
Your argument is persuasive; it addresses every objection I had.
His research paper is plagiarized; he is going to fail the class.
The novel is a relatively recent literary form; it’s not nearly as old as epic poetry and lyric poetry.
The second pattern to look for involves a complete sentence, a semi-colon, a connecting word or phrase, a comma, and another complete sentence:
[complete sentence]; [word or phrase], [complete sentence].
(Again, the comma after the connecting word or phrase is appropriate as that word or phrase is an introductory element in the second sentence.)
Some examples:
I decided not to take the job; instead, I’m going to graduate school.
The proposal is flawed; as a result, we’re sending it back for revision.
She did well in the class; in fact, she did much better than she had expected.
How can you tell whether you have two complete sentences or one sentence with an interrupting element at its end? With an interrupting element (something less than a sentence in itself), the parts of the sentence can be switched and still make sense:
I’ll go to work, even though I’m sick.
Even though I’m sick, I’ll go to work.
But with a second complete sentence and a word or phrase such as instead, as a result, or in fact, the parts cannot be switched and still make sense.
Those are the basics of punctuating sentences with commas and semi-colons. I know from working with many students that any writer can get better when it comes to punctuation. The key is the ability to recognize a handful of familiar patterns. Look for the patterns in your sentences, and you too can get better. With some practice, you’ll be able to see the parts of your sentences falling into place, and punctuating correctly will become, believe it or not, a habit, one that you’ll be happy to have acquired.
Colons, by the way, function as arrows or pointers: see what I mean?
Michael Leddy teaches college English and blogs at Orange Crate Art.


Comma (,)
1. Use commas to separate items in a series.
Example: Our itinerary included Rome, London, and Madrid.
2. Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet, when they join independent clauses (unless the clauses are short).
Example: The story gets off to a slow start, but it gets exciting toward the end.
3. Use commas to set off nonessential clauses and phrases.
Example: My father, who started this company, really knows his stuff.
4. Use a comma after introductory elements.
Examples: Well, how do you do?
Before you leave, turn off the lights.
5. Use commas to set off an expression that interrupts a sentence.
Examples: The article in The Herald, our local paper, is about writing skills. Cabs in New York, I'm certain, obey the speed limit.
6. Use a comma in certain conventional situations (to separate items in dates and addresses, after the salutation and closing of a letter, and after a name followed by a title).
Examples: January 1, 1992
New York, NY
Dear Shirley,
Cordially,
Albert Schweitzer, Ph.D.
Don't use unnecessary commas. Use them sparingly and only to clarify issues. Commas in the wrong places can be confusing.
Apostrophe (')
1. To form the possessive case of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s.
Examples: Bob's car; One's home.
If the addition of an "s" produces an awkward sound, add only the apostrophe. Usually, this is when there is already a double "s" sound.
Examples: Moses'; for old times' sake; for goodness' sake.
2. To form the possessive case of a plural noun, add an apostrophe after the s.
Example: girls' teams.
If the plural form of the word does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s.
Example: women's team.
3. Use an apostrophe to show where letters have been omitted in a contraction.
Examples: can't = cannot; it's = it is.
Semicolon (;)
1. Use a semicolon between independent clauses not joined by and, but, nor, for, yet, and so.
Example: Read what you've written; don't just pass it on.
2. Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by such words as for example, besides, nevertheless, etc.
Example: I think he's right; however, it's difficult to know.
3. Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items contain commas.
Example: Winners in the competition were Bill, first place; Amy, second place; and Jeff, third place.
Colon (:)
1. Use a colon to mean "note what follows."
Example: When you go to training, take these items: paper, pencil, and an alert mind.
2. Use a colon before a long, formal statement or quotation.
Example: We remember Lincoln's Gettysburg Address: Four score and seven years ago....
Hyphen (-)
1. Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line.
Example: If you are not sure where to hyphen-
ate a word, look it up in the dictionary.
2. Hyphenate a compound adjective when it precedes the word it modifies.
Examples: fast-moving train, long-distance runner.
Dash (--)
1. Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in thought.
Example: The truth is--and you probably know it--we can't do without you.
2. Use a dash to mean namely, in other words, or that is before an explanation.
Example: It was a close call--if he had been in a worse mood, I don't think I'd still be here.
Quotation Marks (" ")
1. Put periods and commas inside quotes.
2. Put colons and semicolons outside quotes.
3. Vary placement of exclamation and question marks according to meaning.

While there are no hard and fast rules about punctuation, there are good style guidelines. This is a list of our ten most commonly used punctuation marks and a guide to their use.
10. Comma

Use commas to separate independent clauses in a sentence, for example:
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
Yesterday was her brother’s birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
Use commas after introductory words, phrases, or clauses that come before the main clause:
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
NOTE: You should not do the reverse of this. For example, the following two cases are wrong:
The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
You ought to see a doctor, if you are ill.
Introductory words that should be followed by a comma are: yes, however, and well. For example: Yes, you can come to the party
Use a pair of commas to separate an aside from the main body of the sentence. For example:
John and Inga, the couple from next door, are coming for dinner tonight.
You can test this by removing the aside from the sentence. If the sentence still reads correctly, you have probably used the commas as you should. In the case above, this would render: John and Inga are coming for dinner tonight.
Do not use commas to separate essential elements of the sentence. For example:
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The Oxford Comma
I prefer the Oxford comma when dealing with lists. It is also known as the Serial Comma or the Harvard Comma. The Oxford comma is much more widespread in American English than British English. When using the Oxford comma, all items in a list of three or more items are separated. For example:
I love apples, pears, and oranges.
Note the comma after “pears”. Many people prefer not to use this style and will omit the final comma. We call this the Oxford comma because it is the standard method taught at Oxford University.
Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life.
Occasionally, you will see a comma between a house number and street. This is not wrong, it is just old fashioned. It is not done in modern times, however.
Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, “I’ll see you tomorrow.”
“I was able,” she answered, “to complete the assignment.”
Use commas if they prevent confusion:
To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.
9. Period or Full Stop

The primary use of a period is to end a sentence. Its second important use is for abbreviations. There are stylistic differences here. I will discuss both.
Fowler
Martin Fowler, author of Modern English Usage, says that we should place a period at the end of an abbreviation only when the final letter of the abbreviation is not the final letter of the expanded word. For example:
Jesus Christ was born c. 4-6AD
The abbreviation is for the word “circa” – as it ends in an ‘a’ and the abbreviation is normally ‘c’ – we include the period.
Mr Jones was happy to see his wife
St Patrick lived in Ireland
In the first case above, “Mr” is an abbreviation for mister. Because mister ends in an ‘r’ and the abbreviation includes that ‘r’, we omit the period.
Other
The other use of the period for abbreviations is to always include the period, regardless of whether the final letter is included.
Mr. Jones was happy to see his wife
If an abbreviated phrase is pronounced, we do not include periods. For example: NASA is correct, N.A.S.A is incorrect. In some cases the periods are omitted even when the word is not pronounced, usually because it is a very commonly known term. For example: UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles).
In the case of a word like et cetera (etc.,) we always include the period.
8. Question Mark

The question mark is a fairly easy punctuation mark to use. It has one use, and one use alone. It goes at the end of a sentence which is a question. For example:
How many will be at the party?
you do not include a period when using a question mark. You also do not use a combination of question marks and exclamation marks in formal writing, though this is gaining acceptance in informal writing – particularly on the internet.
One thing to be careful of is to not include a question mark when it is not needed:
WRONG: I wonder how many people will come to the party?
While you are expressing a thought that seems to require an answer, you are doing so with a statement. This is the most common mistake made when using a question mark.
7. Exclamation Mark

Only use this when issuing a command or speaking forcefully! As in the case of the question mark, do not follow this with a period and do not combine it with other punctuation marks. Oh, and only one is needed. Two or three exclamation marks in a row is completely unnecessary.
6. Quote Marks

Quotation marks are used to quote another person’s words exactly, whether they be spoken, or written. For example:
John said, “We are going shopping.” – note the capitalization of “We”. You should do this unless you are quoting in a run-on sentence:
John said “we are going shopping” because they had no milk. Note the omission of the comma in this case also.
If you are quoting a person who is quoting another person, use a single quotation mark like this:
John said, “My neighbor yelled at me today! He said ‘get off my lawn!’”
When introducing a quotation after an independent clause, use a colon and not a comma to begin:
As D. H. Nachas explains, “The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to another.” (not an independent clause)
D. H. Nachas explains cultural differences in greeting customs: “Touching is not a universal sign of greeting. (this is an independent clause)
Quotation marks can also be used to denote irony or sarcasm, or to note something unusual about it:
The great march of “progress” has left millions impoverished and hungry.
Punctuation with quotations
Punctuation that belongs to the original quote should be inside the quote marks. Punctuation relating to the entire sentence should be outside.
Philip asked, “Do you need this book?”
Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, “You must work harder”?
Always put colons and semicolons outside quotes. Put commas and periods inside quotations unless followed by parenthesis:
He said, “I may forget your name, but I never remember a face.”
Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, “Donahue’s policy was to do nothing” (27).


5. Colon

A colon should be used after a complete statement in order to introduce one or more directly related ideas, such as a series of directions, a list, or a quotation or other comment illustrating or explaining the statement. For example:
The daily newspaper contains four sections: news, sports, entertainment, and classified ads.
The strategies of corporatist industrial unionism have proven ineffective: compromises and concessions have left labor in a weakened position in the new “flexible” economy.
The colon is also used to separate chapter and verse from the bible (I Parlipomenon 12:30), to separate hours, minutes, and seconds: 13:49:08, and as eyeballs in smiley faces.
4. Semicolon

Use a semicolon to join related independent clauses in compound sentences. For example:
Jim worked hard to earn his degree; consequently, he was certain to achieve a distinction.
Jane overslept by three hours; she was going to be late for work again.
The semicolon is also used to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas. For example:
Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter.
3. Apostrophe

The apostrophe has three uses:
1) to form possessives of nouns
2) to show the omission of letters
3) to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.
Forming possessives
the boy’s hat
three day’s journey
If the noun after “of” is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed. For example: The car door.
Showing omission
He’ll go = He will go
could’ve = could have (Not “could of”!)
Forming plurals
Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase. For example:
Mind your p’s and q’s
2. Parentheses

Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra, nonessential material included in a sentence. For example, dates, sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest of the sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always appear in pairs.
Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it was a relic of frontier days) caught fire.
1. Dash or Hyphen

Dash
Use the dash to emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment; but don’t overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact. A dash is typically represented on a computer by two hyphens with no spaces before, after, or between the hyphens.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical–even revolutionary.
It is also used for an appositive phrase that already includes commas.
The boys–Jim, John, and Jeff–left the party early.
As you can see, the dash can be used in the same way as parentheses.
Hyphen
Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
chocolate-covered peanuts
Don’t use the hyphen when the noun comes first:
The peanuts are chocolate covered
Use a hyphen with compound numbers: Forty-five
You should also use a hyphen to avoid confusion in a sentence:
He had to re-sign the contract
He had to resign his job
Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s


Exclamation Points
Sometimes called the exclamation mark, the exclamation point is used at the end of a sentence or after an interjection to show strong emotion or emphasis.
Exclamatory sentence: The rain did not stop for four days!
Strong command: Be back at ten o'clock or else!
Interjection: Wow!
When an emphatic interjection or direct address begins a sentence, you may use an exclamation point or a comma, depending on how much you want to show the strong emotion.
Correct: No, I don't want to go there.
Correct, more emotion: No, I don't want to go there!
Correct, even more emphasis: No! I don't want to go there!
Beware of overusing exclamation points. Using them too frequently makes them less meaningful.
Use of an exclamation point inside parentheses is used by some to show irony.
Usually, the ironic tone should be clear from the words, but sometimes this special punctuation is added for emphasis. Some authorities do not consider this construction necessary, and it is of very limited use in most standard English writing.
OK, informal: That butcher (!) is a vegetarian.
(The punctuation is probably not necessary, but it was placed there to emphasize the irony.)


The Three Most Common Comma Rules
While there are many specific uses for commas, nearly eighty-five percent of the commas used in written English are used in a mere three situations.
If you know the basic rule for these three cases, you can use commas in over four-fifths of the times you need to use commas.
1. Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that separates two independent clauses.
For more on this, see Commas in Compound Sentences.
2. Put a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.
For more on this, see Commas and Introductory Words, Commas After Introductory Phrases, and Commas After Introductory Clauses.
3. Use commas to set off elements that interrupt or add information in a sentence.
For more on this, see Commas with Interrupting Expressions and Commas with Nonrestrictive Modifiers.


Commas in Compound Sentences
Use a comma to separate independent clauses in a compound sentence when they are separated by a conjunction.
The comma goes after the first clause and before the coordinating conjunction that separates the clauses.
Make sure they are independent clauses and not some other construction where commas are not required.
Correct: We washed the dog, and then we cleaned up the mess that he made.
(This contains two independent clauses with their own subject and verb: We washed and we cleaned. The third clause, that he made, is a subordinate clause, so the rule does not apply.
Incorrect: We washed the dog, and then cleaned up his mess.
(There is only one subject. This is a single clause, not two independent clauses. The subject we has a compound verb.)
Correct: We washed the dog and then cleaned up his mess.

Semicolons with Clauses
Semicolons are used to separate independent clauses in three different cases.
1. When there are no conjunctions separating the clauses.
Incorrect: I like you, John likes you, too.
(Semicolon needed)
Correct: I like you; John likes you, too.
2. When the clauses are separated by a conjunctive adverb or other parenthetical expression set off by commas.
Correct: I am crucified with Christ; nevertheless, I live.--Galatians 2:20.
(Nevertheless is a conjunctive adverb.)
Correct: Hector was a Trojan; Achilles, on the other hand, was an Achaean.
3. When the clauses themselves contain commas.
Incorrect: He wears shoes with kilties, a leather fringe, but I prefer penny loafers myself.
(Since clause already has comma, semicolon separating the clauses is needed to make sentence clear.)
Correct: He wears shoes with kilties, a leather fringe; but I prefer penny loafers myself.


Semicolons in a Series
When the items in a series themselves contain commas, separate the items with semicolons.
Incorrect: We visited Erie, Pennsylvania, Buffalo, New York, and Toronto, Ontario.
(Confusing. Semicolons needed to make clear distinctions.)
Correct: We visited Erie, Pennsylvania; Buffalo, New York; and Toronto, Ontario.
See also Commas in a Series.


Quotations Marks in Direct Quotations
When a person or work is quoted directly and word for word, the quotation is placed in quotation marks.
An indirect quotation in which the substance but not exact wording is used does not take quotations marks.
Correct: Macbeth said, "All our yesterdays have lighted fools the way to dusty death."
(A direct quotation)
Incorrect: Macbeth said that, "Their past actions lead fools to death."
(Contains the substance, but not exact words. Quotation marks are not used.)
Correct: Macbeth said that their past actions lead fools to death.
See Quotation Marks Index for more on quotation marks.

Question Marks or Exclamation Points in Quotations
If a question or exclamation is quoted directly, the quotation contains the question mark or exclamation point.
If the question or exclamation is at the end of the quotation, the question mark or exclamation point comes before the closing quotation mark.
Incorrect: "Look at that"! he exclaimed. "Did you see that"?
Correct: "Look at that!" he exclaimed. "Did you see that?"
(Question mark or exclamation point comes before quotation mark.)
A question mark can be found outside the quotation mark if the sentence is asking about a quotation, but the quotation itself is not a question.
Incorrect: Did Mark Antony say, "Friends, Romans, countrymen?"
(A question is not being quoted. The speaker is asking about a quotation.)
Correct: Did Mark Antony say, "Friends, Romans, countrymen"?
In the rare case where the question is about a quotation ending in a question, the sentence ends with a single question mark before the quotation mark.
Incorrect: Who said, "Et tu, Bruté?"?
(Second question mark redundant)
Correct: Who said, "Et tu, Bruté?"
See also Question Marks and Quotations with Other Punctuation Marks.

Quotation Marks in Dialogue
Begin a new paragraph with every change of speaker.
Incorrect:
"Hello, Mary," Jeffrey stammered. "Hi, Jeffrey, how are you?" "Uh, fine. What have you been doing lately?"
Correct:
"Hello, Mary," Jeffrey stammered.
"Hi, Jeffrey, how are you?"
"Uh, fine. What have you been doing lately?"
For quotations longer than a single paragraph, put quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph but only at the end of the final quoted word.
This is the only case in which an opening quotation mark may not have a matching closing quotation mark.
Example:
Carton continued: "I see that child who lay upon her bosom and who bore my name, a man winning his way up in that path of life which once was mine. I see him winning it so well, that my name is made illustrious there by the bright light of his. I see the blots I threw upon it faded away. I see him, foremost of thee just judges and honored men, bringing a boy of my name, with a forehead that I know and golden hair, to this place--then fair to look upon, with not a trace of this day's disfigurement--and I hear him tell the child my story, with a tender and faltering voice.
"It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known."
(Because the quotation is longer than a paragraph, note that the first paragraph has no closing quotation marks. Quotation marks do open the next paragraph to show that the quotation continues.)


Dashes
A dash is a long horizontal mark twice the length of a hyphen. On most typewriters and computers dashes are represented by typing two hyphens.
Dashes are emphatic. They are nearly like emphatic parentheses.
To be effective, dashes, like exclamation points, should not be overused.
Dashes indicate an abrupt change of thought.
Sometimes they set off a clause or phrase for emphasis or dramatic effect.
Change of thought: I loved the dinner last night--have you you ever been to Chez Louis?
Set off statement for emphasis: Punctuation marks can be confusing--commas, dashes, hyphens, colons!
See also Parentheses and Dashes with Nonrestrictive Modifiers.


Dashes with Nonrestrictive Modifiers
Commas are normally used to set off nonrestrictive modifiers.
However, nonrestrictive modifiers can be set off by dashes for emphasis or if the modifiers contain commas or other punctuation that could confuse the reader.
Incorrect: Some expensive films, Heaven's Gate, for example, have been big flops.
(Relationships not clear)
Correct: Some expensive films--Heaven's Gate, for example--have been big flops.
(Modifier itself has a comma.)
See also Commas with Nonrestrictive Modifiers.

Parentheses
Parentheses set off material not essential to the meaning of the text.
They are used for asides and explanations when the material is not essential or if it is made up of more than one sentence.
Parentheses may contain a complete sentence or sentences.
Example: He had to go through the usual process to get his bus driver's license (police and FBI check, reference check, motor vehicle check, written exam, mechanical test, and driving test).
(This could be set off by a colon for more emphasis since it is a list or by a dash for strong emphasis. But since the sentence says "the usual process," there is no need to emphasize anything.)
See also Dashes and Capitalizing and Punctuation in Parentheses.


Hyphenated Prefixes and Suffixes
Use a hyphen after a prefix followed by a proper noun or proper adjective.
Examples: mid-June pre-Columbian Afro-American
Use a hyphen in words beginning with the prefixes all-, ex- (meaning "former"), and self- and in words ending with the suffix -elect.
Incorrect: selfpropelled ex-treme
(Prefix self- needs hyphen. The prefix in extreme does not mean "former.")
Correct: all-knowing ex-wife self-propelled mayor-elect extreme exacting


Hyphenated Compound Words
Hyphens are used internally in some compound words to separate the words forming the compound word.
Examples: merry-go-round editor-in-chief
When unsure of the hyphenation of such words, check a dictionary. Usage may vary. As some words are more widely used, the hyphen is dropped. For example, in the early 1800s the word blackbird was usually spelled black-bird. Now the hyphen has been dropped.
Hyphens connect the words of a compound modifier that comes before the word being modified. Hyphens are not used this way with compound parts ending in -ly or made up of proper nouns or proper adjectives.
Incorrect: He is a well respected man.
Correct: He is a well-respected man.
(A compound modifier before the noun.)
Incorrect: That man is well-respected.
Correct: That man is well respected.
(The modifier follows the noun, no hyphen.)
Incorrect: That was a badly-punctuated sentence.
Correct: That was a badly punctuated sentence.
(Modifier ends in -ly, no hyphen.)
Incorrect: The South-American rain forest is home to hundreds of species of hummingbirds.
Correct: The South American rain forest is home to hundreds of species of hummingbirds.
(Modifier is proper, no hyphen.)
Some authorities recognize the use of a hyphenated compound adjective following the verb to be, especially if necessary for clarity.
Hyphens in Words for Clarity
Hyphens within a word can make some words clearer.
They are frequently used with prefixes ending with the same vowel as the root begins with to show pronunciation or emphasize meaning. They are also frequently used to distinguish between words.
Examples: co-op (instead of coop, also prefix ending with same vowel as root beginning)
re-elect (prefix ending with same vowel as root beginning)
Re-form the clay pot (instead of reform, which has a different meaning)
Re-sign a contract (instead of resign, which could mean nearly the opposite.)
Sometimes words may be combined mistakenly. A hyphen can help the reader understand what is meant.
Incorrect: The guard captured five foot soldiers.
(Is it five-foot soldiers, or five foot-soldiers?)
Correct: The guard captured five foot-soldiers.
According to author Vince Emery, a message posted on the Internet almost started a "flame war" because it said, "I resent your message." It was supposed to say, " Ire-sent your message."


Quotation marks are punctuation marks that work together in pairs. Their most common use is to indicate someone's exact words. They are also used to mark the title of a short piece of writing, such as a short story or a poem.
Direct Quotations
Use quotation marks to indicate a direct quotation—someone's exact words. Here are some examples that show the three basic forms of a direct quotation.
Direct quotation: "This is a great song," said Marcos.
In the example above, the quoted words come first.
Direct quotation: Marcos said, "This is a great song."
In this example, the quoted words come after the speaker is named.
Direct quotation: "This," Marcos said, "is a great song."
In the last example, the quoted words are interrupted and the speaker is named in the middle. This form emphasizes the first few words.
Indirect Quotations
Indirect quotations report what someone said but do not use the speaker's exact words. Quotation marks are not used with indirect quotations. Indirect quotations usually include the word that, as in said that. In questions, the wording is often asked if.Look at these examples.
Direct quotation: "I'm joining a rock band," said Rick.
These are Rick's exact words, so you must use quotation marks.
Indirect quotation: Rick said that he is joining a rock band.
This sentence explains what Rick said but does not use Rick's exact words. So quotation marks should not be used.
Direct quotation: "There will be a jazz concert next weekend," said Donna.
Indirect quotation: Donna said that there will be a jazz concert next weekend.
Quotation Marks around Titles
Put quotation marks around the titles of short works that are parts of larger works. The titles of longer works are put in italics (or underlined).
Quotation Marks Italics (or Underlining)
"The Wild Swans" (short story) Hans Christian Anderson's Fairy Tales (book)
"Mud Master" (poem) The Collected Poems of Wallace Stevens (book)
"There's Your Trouble" (song) Home (CD)
"How Saving American Education Became Cool" (magazine article) The Atlantic (magazine)
"Power Bills on the Rise" (newspaper article) Orange County Register (newspaper)
"The Inferno" (episode of a TV show) Third Watch (TV series)
Quotation Marks Used with Other Punctuation Marks
When you are quoting someone's complete sentences, begin with a capital letter and use appropriate end punctuation—a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. You do not need to capitalize the first word of a quotation if it is only part of a sentence.

1. Capitalize the first letter of the first word being quoted, and put a period at the end of the sentence if it is a statement. Separate the spoken words from the rest of the sentence with a comma.
"This is a very good band," he said.
She said, "Turn up the sound."
2. If the quotation ends with a question mark, an exclamation point, or a dash, use that punctuation instead of a comma or a period.
He yelled, "Stop that car!"
"Why are you leaving?" she asked.
"But what's a—" Nadya hesitated, searching for the right word.
3. In a quotation that is interrupted, capitalize the first word being quoted, but do not capitalize words in the middle of the sentence. Use a comma both before and after the interruption. End with a period if it is a statement.
"Yes," said the guitar player, "we will give you a concert."
4. You do not need to capitalize the first word of a quotation that is only part of a sentence.
My mom told me to relax and "have faith."
5. If a question mark or an exclamation point belongs to the sentence only, not to the quotation, place it outside the quotation mark.
Who wrote the poem "The New Colossus"?
6. If a quotation is followed by a colon or semicolon, place that mark outside the end quotation mark.
We know Larry's definition of "on time": arriving ten minutes after the start of work.
Larry's boss has another idea of "on time"; he wants employees to arrive ten minutes early.
7. A quotation may be set off between dashes. In that case, place the dashes outside the quotation.
The first line of Moby Dick—"Call me Ishmael"—recalls a story from the Bible.

Hint: Look at the examples again. Notice that periods and commas always go inside the quotation marks.

Not: "No", he said, "this isn't the way to Woodstock".
Correct: "No," he said, "this isn't the way to Woodstock."


Like any good creative, many writers struggle with ego.
As a result, they do not become as great of writers as they could be. They coast along as merely “good” writers. And that’s not enough.
You don’t want to be good. You don’t want to maintain the status quo. You want to be great, because you’ve got something amazing to say, something that would change people’s lives if they took the time to hear it.
Don’t you?
Isn’t that why you started writing in the first place — to say something worth listening to? (If not, you might reconsider your motivation for wanting to write.)
In order to earn the right to speak to your audience, you need to develop yourself as a writer. Being good, or even pretty good, just won’t cut it. You need to be great.
In order to be a truly great writer, you need an editor. This should be someone who will tell you the truth about your writing without blowing smoke up your butt. You need someone you can trust, so that when (not “if”) they criticize you, you can trust that it’s not in order to tear you down, but to build you up.
For a good editor, I suggest a peer — someone close enough to you who knows you well, but not too close.
Your editor needs to be able to tell you the hard truth without having to face the consequences of your not being “best friends” anymore. You need someone who is bold and blunt.
You need an editor who will challenge you to write more than one draft of a piece, because, as we all know, the first draft is usually crap.
At the end of the day, we all need to grow. We all need to come down off of our high horses of achievement and success and be humbled a little. We need people who will force us to set aside ego for the sake of the message we are called to spread. We need a community to encourage us and hold us accountable.
So, get a peer editor, and get on your way to becoming great.
Do you have a peer editor? How does he/she encourage and challenge you?


How to start writing a book (mailbag)
I get tons of comments/email in response to this post on how to write a book. Here’s another interesting, and life-grounding, question from the mailbag:
I found your website hand thought it was awesome. I watched your videos and decided I could use some advice from you.
My house burnt down 3 weeks ago in Burnsville, Minnesota. I lost a 38 foot RV, a 69 Plymouth Fury Convertible, and monster truck and trailer in the driveway and my 16 years old sons car he worked on so hard and never got to drive. I also lost 5 animals in the fire and that really hurts. I still have my 3 children ages 23, 16 and a 10 year old daughter who is having night mares with all this life changing overnight experience. Guess what? I want to write a book about my life and how it changed so quickly. I am very grateful we are all alive and ok. Like everyone else I dont know where to start. I am living my worst night mare in a hotel gong on a month. We have nothing but the cloths we were wearing that day. Any advice would be greatly appreciated. Please contact me.
Very sorry to hear about your loss. I do hope there are local government agencies or non-profits that can offer you some assistance. Books aside, I do wish you and your family well.
On starting: there is no single easy way. Everyone is different. There are tricks I list in this essay on writing hacks, but some or one will work for you. The truth is how you start doesn’t matter, but if you wait for a perfect way you’ll never get started. If that essay doesn’t help, here’s additional advice:
• Plan to come back. One trick that helps is to remember that the real work in writing is editing. I plan to come back later and revise, cut, rewrite and do all kinds of work later on. The “writing” part is just the beginning and believing this has a freeing effect. When I sit down with a blank page I have no preconceptions. I just start writing and plan to figure it all out later once there are a few pages of rambles and rants to work from.
• Go chronological. In your case you’re writing about things that have happened, or are happening to you. Great. Pick a date, say a week before the fire, and write about what happened every day from them to now. It could be as simple as two or three facts per day, or memories per day, or your recollection of your thoughts on those days, whatever you like. But anchor on time as the spine of your writing. It creates an easy way to divide up your memories, and to trigger thoughts or recollections. You then might choose to go to your family and friends and get their stories and recollections on every day, giving you even more material to work from.
• Keep a notebook with you. Have a place to write down ideas and thoughts about your experience and keep it with you all the time. Your rule should be whenever a thought crosses your mind, no matter how strange or personal, you write it down. Worry later if its good or interesting, but in the moment, commit yourself to writing something down. I have piles of old notebooks, and go through one every few weeks.
• Read other memoirs of experience. Many great writers have written books about their personal experience with tough times. Check out Joan Didion’s The year of magical thinking, about her experience with having two loved ones become seriously ill at the same time. It can help to see how other writers have tackled the same type of writing you’re going through. Worst case, you can critique their handling of personal crisis and write about that :)
• Write every day. Even if it’s just for 5 minutes, even if it’s just a sentence or a few words, sit down and write every single day. You have to get used to how it feels to sit there and that only happens if you put your ass in the chair every single day. Find a slot in your schedule that you can protect (early mornings or late nights often work) and ask family to respect that time.
I hope that helps get you started. Best wishes.


Is your book idea good? (Yes, I promise)
It will take many hours to write a book.
Therefore, you should write about something you, the writer, finds interesting. Why not please yourself?
“Will anyone care about my story?” people ask. Yes – you. It starts with you.
Many people with an idea want others to tell them their idea is worthy. Why is their approval of your idea necessary? That’s a sales question, not a writing question. If you want thousands to know you, that’s an ego problem, not a writing problem.
I say, if you find it interesting, do it. If you find it worthwhile or meaningful, that’s enough. Your idea is good because it’s yours, and it means something to you.
If even one person gets value from what you make that justifies your efforts. That person might be a close friend, a distant stranger, or possibly even yourself, years later, when you rediscover this amazing thing you made, amazing simply because you made it. Your book idea is good because it’s yours. Whatever it is it’s good enough to be the book that you write.
If an idea lingers in your mind, and won’t leave you alone, just do it. The only chance for sanity is to get the idea out of your mind and down on paper or on a screen.
If you think the story should be told, whether it’s yours, your Mom’s, or your imaginary friend Rupert’s, you are the only person in the world capable of telling it in the way you have it in your mind. Fiction, non-fiction, memoir, fantasy, a play, a novella, a blog, first person, third, a third person fantasy novella about Smurf memoirs, who cares? Form is a distraction. Certainly at first, and maybe always.
Don’t wait for permission. Permission on creative matters is for cowards. Just make the thing and see what happens. Maybe it will be awful. Maybe wonderful. Who knows? No one. Not until you get off your ass and make the thing. This is easy bravery. No lives are at stake. You’re not doing heart surgery or charging across flaming trenches. Pick up the pen, go to the keyboard, and use your words. No one will see but you – why be afraid of yourself?
So what if it’s not original. The last 2000 years of literature is mostly borrowed from Sophocles and his buddies, or Shakespeare, or the ancient myths. It’s clear the telling of the tale can be more potent than the tale itself. And for those ignorant of the books you’ve read, your story, however trite to you, might just blow their mind.
Don’t pester others for validation before you’ve written a word. Instead ask them to support your excitement and passion, for they can do that no matter how little sense your idea makes to them. Feedback? Sure. But feedback on an idea is mostly worthless. What confirmation do you need, or could you possibly get, for your own interest in an idea?
The only way to know if an idea is ‘good’ or ‘bad’ is to do something with it.
And if you make it, and others don’t like it, you’re in good company. No author or artist has made something everyone likes. And for many authors and artists their friends were their only fans in their lifetimes.
Ideas can seem to tease us in our minds – they hover out of reach, too far for mere thinking to knock them on their ass. It’s only the act of making an idea real, through writing, drawing, filming or other manifested work that we pin ideas down long enough to discover what they can or cannot be in the world. Many will crumble. Some will disappoint. Some might need to linger again in our minds, for weeks or years. But the glory is that in every attempt there are new seeds to plant elsewhere. There is always more. People who never make anything don’t know this, but there is always more. You lose nothing by making. If your idea fades, before it disappears it will help you find others.
It’s only through effort that we learn what an idea actually is, and if our passion for it will last or fade. There is no shame in failure – all makers fail. But it’s hard to respect someone who never tries, even once, to do something good that’s always on their mind. If you’re worried about how good your idea is, you’re worrying about the wrong thing.
Get started. It’s the only way.
If this doesn’t get you to stop reading or talking about writing, and actually do something, this might explain why.
Or if you want to begin, go here.


How to write a book, part 2
One of my most popular posts in history is how to write a book: the short honest truth. It has over 300 comments and it’s the 2nd or 3rd link if you search various search engines for how to write.
I’ve gone through before to answer some entertaining questions, and recently found some more fun ones that are worth responding to in a separate post.
POPOOLA ABAYOMI asked:
PLAESE HELP ME KNOW HOW TO WRITE
Um, no. Not until you at least spell the first word correctly and turn the caps off. (odds are 50/50 this post was written by my dog, Max, playing a practical joke on me).
Geraint wrote:
hey im 15 and im writing a book and i was wondering what you do when u get writers block because im getting it alot now im on my 1050th page of my book, its good so far i think and i was just wondering if you had any tips on how to get rid of writers block or on how to get inspiration? great article by the way lots of help :D
If that’s not a typo, and you have 1050 pages, your problem is not writers block my friend. You may even have writers anti-block. When you’re in the hundreds of pages it’s a good idea to stop for a few minutes and think about plot and structure. Or find an editor to read some of what you’re written.
Lynne wrote:
I am a surgical RN,,and I know nothing about writing a book,,but I want to write one related to things that are important and maybe useful to others (nothing to do with the medical field), my concerns is how to start the book, do i do a outline first or do I just jump in a start writing and organize later,,what program should I use on my pc???
There is no single way to do this and everyone works differently. Try writing an outline. If you don’t like that, try jumping in. Personally I like outlines. It helps me sort out my thinking and gives a rough structure to aim for, but I’m always willing to abandon the outline when it feels right. It’s also a good barometer for how clear my thinking is, since if I can’t list ten or twelve ideas, or points, or plot notes, it’s unlikely I’ll have enough for an entire chapter, much less a book. But many writers work the other way. The important thing is you try something, and if it doesn’t work, try something else. There are plenty of gimmicky books that offer other methods too.
Chris wrote:
That was great, I decided I will make a film instead.
Hmmm. I actually think making films is harder than writing books, but perhaps I should keep my mouth shut.
Art asked:
I have a wife and a son and while I think others would enjoy my stories would I even be able to get published on a low end well enough to pay the bills persay? I know it’s a question asked quite often and I’ll be doing a bit more searching and I may turn up some answers I just would like to hear it from someone who has been there.
Assume not. And for those story writers who do earn enough to pay the bills it takes years or decades to earn enough credibility and audience for that to happen. It’s certainly possible, but the odds are against it, especially if you’re talking about short stories. Write for other reasons, but do write. You’ll learn much about yourself just by trying.
Ashley inquired:
thanks for the article. I love to write stories, that is in my head i do. I can imagine so many different places, situations, and stories. However, when I sit down to write them out or pick up paper and pen to write it out, I can’t seem to word it right. At least, not all of what i wanted to write. I have great openers, the first chapter, so to speak comes so naturally. I can do an outline of what I want to say, how I want the story to go, but, when it comes to actually writing the whole thing out I get stuck.
and Janet asked:
The problem i’m having is this , it’s all in my head, getting it on paper is the hard part. I started writing one evening about four months ago, and got bugged down with it. Telling the story is very easy ,but putting it in the form of a book i’m having struggles.
Ha! Welcome to the torture of being a creative. There are thousands of musicians who can hear songs in their heads, but can’t make it sound right on the piano or guitar. Painters who imagine canvases in their dreams they can never replicate in the day. The discipline of creative work is learning how to close that gap, over time, through the mastery of craft. There is no shortcut. It doesn’t mean you’re doing something wrong, it feels that way for most creative people most of the time. The difference is those who fight through and keep working learn to close the gap. Or perhaps simply make excellent work others love, even if it never perfectly matches what the creator had in their mind.
Lis asked:
How do you get pass the fear? All I keep thinking is that I will be laughed at and think my book stupid.
Weren’t you afraid to leave this comment? You did write it after all, despite the fact I could call you stupid. A book is just a collection of 8,000 or so sentences. If you can write one you can write 8000. When anyone laughs at your book, just say “ok, where is yours?” Then when they start to make up some excuse for not having one, hit them in the face (with your book).
Kim, who perhaps did not read the post, asked:
I know I can write; I live and breath to write. What completely douses my enthusiasm are the odds of getting published. That thought takes the wind right out of me!
To hell with publishers then. Go to kinkos. Go to lulu. If you are obsessed with someone else publishing your book your problem isn’t writing, it’s your ego. Self publishing gives you control over the odds.
Tereai said:
If the truth be told writing is natural. It cannot be taught. Thats why there’s a word called TALENT. If its not in you no matter how you force yourself it wont be as good as the naturals.
Who cares? The coolness of writing is you can revise. If you are willing to put in effort writing gets better as you work with it. I’d agree with you perhaps for figure skating or opera, but the tools for writing are available to all. And besides, name a talented writer who didn’t work. Name a natural. I’d bet you they didn’t see their process, discipline or effort as natural. They’d describe it, much like I did in the original post, as work.
MJ quipped:
The first is write the beginning.
write the end and then fill in the blanks !
As silly as this sounds, the first question I ask people when they ask about writing books is this: Have you written a page? And when they say no, I suggest perhaps their problem isn’t with writing books, it’s with writing a page. If you can’t write a page, don’t worry about books, worry about paragraphs.
If you missed part1, this will all make more sense if you go back and read it.


If you have ever thought, even half seriously, that you would like to write a practical book about computers or computer software, then you probably can. Moreover, given the proper editorial and publishing support, you can probably write a successful book. It's all a matter of doing the right things in the right order. And it helps a great deal if you have a publisher willing to do everything in its power to help you along. That is how we at O'Reilly understand our job.
The first thing that must happen, however, is for us to hear from you--your wild and crazy idea, or your carefully analyzed proposal. We may tell you that what you want to do is indeed crazy, or that your detailed analysis is off the mark. But then again, we may say, "Let's see what we can make of this thing." In which case, together we are off and running.
Overview of the Publication Process
But first things first. Here's an overview of the publication process, from beginning to end:
• You send an email query to proposals@oreilly.com, asking if we're interested in a book on such and such a topic. Your query need not be a full proposal, but it should give enough of a sense of the book you want to write and your relevant skills and experience that we'll be intrigued enough to ask for a full proposal. Before sending a query, you should review our catalog or website to be sure that we don't already have a book on the topic you propose. If we do, but you think you have a new angle on an old topic, be sure to explain why your approach will be unique and valuable. Be sure to include the topic in the subject line. We hate queries and proposals labeled simply "Book Proposal."
• We let you know whether or not we're interested in seeing a full proposal. Be warned that this may take a few weeks. We get thousands of unsolicited queries and proposals a year, and sometimes they get backed up. We'd like to be able to get back to you in a few days, but sometimes it takes quite a bit longer.
• You submit a book proposal to us. Your proposal should contain an outline of the book, a discussion of who will buy the book and why, an analysis of any competing books showing why yours fills a real need in the market, and a tentative schedule. If you have not previously published a book, we would also like to receive a writing sample from you, though in some cases the proposal itself will serve as an adequate sample. For more information on what constitutes a good proposal, see Chapter Two of this document.
• We consider your proposal, and perhaps talk it over with others who understand your topic. At this point, we might reach a simple decision, or else we might enter into a series of exchanges with you, asking for further information, seeking your opinion about problematic aspects of the book, inviting your response to criticisms, and so on. Eventually, this all leads to a go/no-go decision.
• Having decided to run with the book, we sit down together with you and work out a contract. This might involve payment of an advance against royalties, and also places certain schedule constraints upon both of us. We like to think of ourselves as more flexible than other publishers--able to to accommodate the peculiar needs and conditions of a particular author or project. We always look forward to sitting down with you and "working it out." That being said, we want authors who are committed to getting the book out as planned. Some topics are more time-critical than others, and in some cases, missing the schedule will make the book unpublishable.
• You are now ready to begin writing. You will probably use Microsoft Word, FrameMaker, or XML, although we can work with manuscripts in certain other formats as well. (Internally, we convert most books to FrameMaker before publication.) See Chapter Two for details on the accepted formats and for infomation on getting the appropriate templates from us. A particular editor will have been assigned to your book, and as you complete the first draft of each chapter, you forward it to your editor. He or she in turn will, as needed, provide editorial guidance, and you will be expected to revise the chapters you submit until the editor agrees that they are acceptable. In some cases, if the individual chapters you submit appear to be exceptionally well written, the primary editorial work may wait until the first draft of the entire manuscript is completed.
• We then subject your book to a thorough editorial and technical review, calling upon experts in the field, as well as our own staff. In many cases, we may begin the technical review on a chapter-by-chapter basis before the first draft is complete; in other cases, we may wait for a complete draft before sending it out for review. It is then your responsibility to revise the book in accordance with the critical commentary you receive. There is much room here for some back-and-forth discussion, and many ways in which we can be of assistance.
• When you have completed your revision, the book goes back to the editor. There may be some further, more rapid iterations of the edit/revision process now, but the hope is that we will soon have a book ready to go into production.
• Our production and design people prepare the book for printing. This includes converting the material to its final format, putting it in the appropriate interior design, bringing the text and graphics together, final copy editing, and proofreading. You will have an opportunity to review the book before we send it to press.
• Meanwhile, our marketing people have been getting out the word about an exciting new O'Reilly title. They will have contacted you early in the development process and asked you to fill out an author questionnaire, which asks you not only for information about you and your book, but also for your ideas about how and to whom we ought to market it. Now you will see the fruits of that dialog. There will be notice in our own catalogs and newsletters, together with reviews in trade journals and many other forms of advertisement. We may ask you to write articles promoting your book on our website, attend or even speak at trade shows or conferences, and participate in other promotional activities. Your willingness and ability to do these things can be an important factor in the success of your book.
• All that remains, we fervently hope, is a long and successful sales run for your book! This sales run will be punctuated, most likely, by periodic revisions that will keep it at the forefront of current technology. If you are documenting a fast-moving technology, you might want to start planning immediately for how you will keep the book up to date.
A Word About Ourselves
If you have seen many of our books and catalogs, or have had dealings with us before, you will know that O'Reilly doesn't quite fit the usual publisher's mold. For one thing, few of us come from a traditional publishing background; we started as a small group of writers and engineers working primarily in Unix research and development environments. For another, our editors are "computer people"--remaining thoroughly immersed in the technical community. It is almost certain that your particular editor will be exercising the software you are writing about--if not testing your examples, or even rooting around in the source code.
This leads naturally to a certain "feel" of our books. We would like our readers to learn in the same way we ourselves have learned most effectively: by having the opportunity to look over the shoulder of an expert who is sitting at a terminal and carefully, patiently explaining how something works. And so we like our books to flow in a rather informal, helpful, and friendly manner. This is, after all, not incompatible with rigor and thoroughness. Expertise, yes; obscurantism, no.
This same style infects our own organizational manner. While our company has grown with extraordinary rapidity over the past twenty years, the "rules" governing our interactions with each other and with authors remain informal. It's just a question of focusing on the task at hand and working together to do whatever has to be done.
Our Major Book Series
Before submitting a proposal, it is worth familiarizing yourself with some of our major series, or types of books. These include:
"Animal" Books
To many of our readers, all of our books are "animal books"--after all, In a Nutshell references, Pocket Guides, Cookbooks, and Essentials titles all have animals on the cover--but internally, we think of the animal books as the the classic, in-depth O'Reilly books on specific topics. Our goal for each of these books is for it to be the definitive work on the program in question. Think Sendmail, DNS and Bind, or Programming Perl. Sometimes the title includes the words "Definitive Guide" or "Definitive Reference", and sometimes it will include a word like "Mastering," "Programming", or "Running", but it will usually include, in big letters on the cover, the name of the technology animal the book aims to tame.
If a topic is complex enough, we might approach it with several volumes -- for example, consider Learning Perl, Programming Perl, and Advanced Perl Programming. But this is the exception rather than the rule. More often, if the topic deserves more than one book, it is likely to be by way of "drill down" rather than by the addition of some audience-level modifier to the title. So, for example, we continued to expand in the Perl market by publishing ever more specific books, such as Mastering Regular Expressions, Perl and LWP, or Mastering Algorithms with Perl.
So if we've already published what seems to be the definitive book in an area, think about whether there's a more specific topic inside the main area. (Of course, you have to think whether there's enough meat for a book, and enough demand for people to buy it.) When we started publishing in the mid-80's, our competitors did top level books on "Unix," but we did books on sed, awk, vi, and a host of other individual Unix utilities. We like to get below the buzzwords that the marketroids know, and instead find the ones that are meaningful to people "in the know."
We're taking this same approach to the technology topics of today. If you're a working programmer or system administrator, you know which tools matter to you--and which ones you wish there was a book on.
While in most cases, you want to think of an animal book being about a specific program or tool, such that the animal on the book cover could become associated with the program in the same way that the Camel has become identified with Perl, it's also possible for there to be a book aimed at a particular job role. So, for example, the Armadillo on Aeleen Frisch's classic Essential System Administration refers not to any specific program but to the role of the sys admin.
(And of course, for historical reasons, because we published them before we got our branding act together, some books that are "animal books" in style and approach don't have animals on the cover at all. For example, our Linux books have wild west themes, and our security books have woodcuts of various types of security objects. But they share all the other characteristics of animal books.)
Animal books are expected to be definitive. Our primary audience is already very technical. They're programmers and system administrators or students aiming for one of those careers. They're tinkerers; they want the inside information that lets them learn new technologies quickly. They want the straight dope, with no condescension and no fluff. They have high standards for quality and practicality, and they send us scathing criticism when they don't find those virtues in one of our books. On the other hand, they are loyal, and when our books are good, they love them and tell us so. When our authors attend conferences and tradeshows, they can sometimes be treated like rock stars.
"In a Nutshell" References
Our very first book was a quick reference, Unix in a Nutshell. We've followed with similar books for most of the interesting technologies over the last ten years: Linux, Java, Perl, Windows 95, 98 and XP, Web Design, Visual Basic, C#, Oracle, and many others. These books are a keystone of our technical publishing program, containing the material that experienced users will want to refer to again and again throughout their career.
In a Nutshell books sport just the head of the animal, reminding you that the intent of this series is an abbreviated, quick-reference format.
We're always looking for new "In a Nutshell" books covering interesting technologies. If what we're looking for isn't clear to you, get copies of Unix in a Nutshell, Java in a Nutshell, and either Web Design in a Nutshell or Windows XP in a Nutshell and ask yourself what they have in common. Then think about how to apply those principles to a new area.
Pocket Guides and Pocket References
Some topics can benefit from an even more abbreviated treatment than an "In a Nutshell." Pocket References like the HTML Pocket Reference contain just the syntax for things that even experienced users still need to look up. Pocket Guides, on the other hand, are "books for smart people in a hurry." Assume that you've got a really competent user. Assemble all the stuff they might find useful in transferring their skills to a new area. The Mac OS X Pocket Guide and the Word Pocket Guide are good examples of this format. The Pocket Reference or Pocket Guide for a technology usually sports the same animal as the book that we consider the principal book on that technology, relying on its small pocket size for differentiation.
Essentials
Sometimes, a topic isn't ready for the definitive treatment. The subject is moving fast, and we want to get out an "early look" to help our readers evaluate the technology. These books have an animal, but the title ends with the word "Essentials", as in .Net Framework Essentials or IPv6 Essentials. These books are intended to be replaced later by a larger, more definitive work, usually by the same author. (We do, however, have books that use the word "Essential" in some other way, as in Essential System Administration, a book that is among the more comprehensive of all those we publish. Sorry for the confusion, but sometimes we don't think ahead far enough about overlap between titles, and an unexpectedly successful book leads to follow-on books, and thus a new "series".)
Digital Studio
Because graphics and multimedia topics require a different type of layout and treatment than programming books, we created a separate series for design, digital photography, and digital video books. The Digital Studio series explores the tools that occupy the modern artist, designer, or filmmaker's studio, such as Photoshop and Final Cut Pro. Learning Web Design and Designing with JavaScript are good examples of this format.
The Missing Manuals
Published in conjunction with David Pogue, the Missing Manuals are O'Reilly's "consumer" line. Packed with in-depth tips and tricks, they nonetheless start at the beginning and walk users through every feature of a software package or operating system. With David Pogue's classic sense of humor and approachable teaching style, they are a fun way to learn. For consumer software products, this is "the book that should have been in the box."(TM) Mac OS X: The Missing Manual is the book to emulate if you want to write for this series.
Cookbooks
While the animal on the cover tells you that this is an authoritative, in-depth treatment for developers or sys admins, the "Cookbook" in the title tells you that this is a reference book in a special "Problem/Solution/Discussion" format. Designed to explicate common programming or system administration techniques, these books are filled with hundreds of specific code sequences that you can effectively cut and paste into your own programs. The Perl Cookbook is a good example of this type of book. Cookbooks are one of our most successful new types of book, and we are interested in developing Cookbooks for most of our major topics.
Hacks and Power Tools
The difference between computer "hackers" and ordinary users is that hackers are always trying something new, something we may not yet know how to do, whether it is for solving an urgent problem, feeling the joy of pushing boundaries, or just, as the poet Wallace Stevens once said, "searching the possible for its possibleness." We experiment, we try things. We ask our friends what works for them when we hit a snag. We have fun with this wonderfully complex toolmaking tool, the computer.
We've always wanted to publish books that capture the essence of the hacker experience. Our animal books embody all the knowledge of a single expert. But we've always wanted a format that made it easy to present lots of small but useful tidbits--tips, tricks, and dare we say, hacks. Our first crack at this problem came in 1993, when Tim edited and co-authored a book entitled Unix Power Tools. Tim conceived it in the early days of the World Wide Web as a kind of "hypertext in print" that would make it possible to present a collection of tips harvested from the Net and from a community of experts, in a way that was both easy to search and fun to explore.
Unix Power Tools went on to sell several hundred thousand copies, and we've heard from many readers that it's their all-time favorite computer book. Nevertheless, despite several attempts, we've never followed it up with more books in the same format. We just couldn't find authors who had the time or encyclopedic depth of knowledge to pull off a massive tome containing thousands of tips and tools.
Recently though, Dale Dougherty and Rael Dornfest independently reinvented a book with a very similar format. It started out with the idea for a focused collection of "Google hacks" - advanced search techniques, scripts for driving the Google API and tips from search experts. We soon realized that the format they were working on was very similar to Unix Power Tools, but by choosing narrower topics, they were able to make the projects more manageable. What's more, with the Web now widespread, the books could actually be developed as a collaborative authoring project using a shared private weblog.
We're interested in doing more "tips and tricks" books along the line of Unix Power Tools and Google Hacks, Mac OS X Hacks and Linux Server Hacks. Check them out and see if you have any ideas. The Hacks books are smaller, on more narrowly focused topics, and they always contain 100 hacks. We wanted a title that didn't lead people to expect another 1000-page encyclopedia with a software CD. And besides, we wanted to do our small bit to reclaim the term "hacker" from those who've redefined it to mean "unauthorized intruder" rather than "computer equivalent of a great jazz improvisationist."
Community Press
Sometimes, a developer community has created a body of online documentation that's well-worth putting into print. Often, as with the Linux Network Administrator's Guide or Using Samba, we work with the community to expand and improve their documentation and publish it as an animal book. But in other cases, such as the MySQL Reference Manual, the online reference documentation makes a great book in and of itself, without added O'Reilly editorial work. In such cases, we'll publish the documentation as part of the Community Press series.
What Topics Are We Interested In?
We continue to be interested in publishing new books in almost all of the "core" areas we are known for -- Internet and open source technologies such as Linux, Perl, MySQL, PHP, Python, Apache, as well as Java, Oracle, networking and security, and system administration topics in general. Some of the newer areas we've been working in include XML and web services, Microsoft's programming and sys admin technologies, including .Net, and graphics and multimedia. If you are at all clued-in to what we publish, you're likely to think of us if you have a book to propose in any of these areas.
We'll always want more good books on these topics. In general, we want proposals that are tightly focused; we need to know who's going to read the book and why they need it. We are not interested in "melting pot" books that throw a bunch of unrelated topics between two covers and pretend that there's some relation between them. (On the other hand, if you can really show how to integrate two different areas in a compelling way, we're definitely interested.) And we're not interested in books that rehash "the same old stuff."
We are interested in filling out our line of Cookbooks and developing collections of tips and tricks for the Hacks series. Because these are new series, there are opportunities to revisit some of our "old" topic areas with a fresh approach. In particular, we'd love good "Web Power Tools" and "Network Administration Power Tools" proposals.
In addition, there are some topic areas we are interested in that you are not as likely to associate with O'Reilly. These include:
Mac OS X
OK, we lied. You probably do think of us for Mac OS X, since we've quickly become the dominant publisher in the space, but we're still looking for more proposals in areas like AppleScript and Mac networking. We're also mindful of the fact that Apple is doing a lot of innovation right now, and we want your help to stay on top of all the coolness that's coming out of Cupertino.
Digital Photography, Digital Video, and Design
When Perl programmers start making mock "Switcher" commercials at our Open Source Convention, we know that digital video has hit our core audience dead center. We've gotta be there. This is also the future. And of course, once you start messing with photo and video, you'd better learn the principles of effective design for rich media.
Consumer Applications and Operating Systems
O'Reilly is not just for hackers any more. With the success of the Missing Manuals, we're looking to raise the sophistication of the average user. But even beyond the Missing Manuals, we are looking to provide Hacks, Pocket References, and Pocket Guides that will take users of consumer operating systems and applications to a new level of expertise. After all, almost everyone has to use Word and Excel at least some of the time. Knowing how to get the most out of these programs is the best revenge. We're particularly interested in developing some advanced books on Excel and Access. And, in addition, we're looking at some books on web sites that are so widely used that they can be considered "killer apps" in and of themselves.
Adobe's developer and design/dev technologies
Adobe's engagement platform continues to grow, comprising AIR, Flash, Flex, ActionScript, Acrobat, and even the Creative Suite. Many of these tools and technologies also work in conjunction with open-source standards and tools; we're interested in how developers and the growing legions of designers doing IA and development are using Adobe's products to build rich media solutions. Our titles in the Adobe Developer Library address many topics in this area, but we're always looking for more perspectives.
Information Design and User Experience
Getting the presentation layer right is critical to building successful products and services; *design* itself has a whole new meaning (Experience design? Interface design? Service design?) well beyond the make-it-look-neat mandates of a decade ago. As well, *how* we consider data and information and present it to a world of interconnected users--thus making it possible for a social web to discover innovative (or just fun and intriguing) uses for that data--is the next wave in computing. What do you have to teach the rest of the world about this growing space?
Wireless Networking
Networking has always been a cornerstone of our publishing program; Unix administrators became network administrators by reading our books on the topic. We're interested in most solid technical networking proposals, but we're particularly interested in wireless development. We want to write about the hard part of the networking infrastructure. Wireless security is also a key topic. We also want to think about the user interface implications of wireless, including new concepts like "rendezvous" and the way that peer-to-peer and wireless are going to change user expectations of how applications ought to work.
Web Services
Our Web program has covered the major protocols and topics (CGI, HTTP, HTML, and so forth), but it seems to us that we're entering an exciting new area of development: web services. We're interested in the next level, the way applications are distributed and delivered across the net. Of course, XML-RPC and SOAP, with their associated technologies, are already overhyped, but new developments are taking place every day. We believe that we really are engaged in building "an Internet operating system", and that the ways that people build services out of distributed components and data sources is going to be a major new focus of the computer industry. We expect to see more Napster-scale surprises in the future, as people figure out how to put the Internet to new uses and build new rich-interface clients with Internet back ends.
Security
Our security program started with Computer Security Basics in 1991. We've built a whole security program since then. As the Internet becomes fundamental to all business operations, and as new developments like peer-to-peer, web services and wireless come on to the scene, security is more important than ever. Sensitive data traveling over public or shared lines is a key part of most businesses, an area that causes many sleepless nights to system administrators and businessmen. We want to tell our readers how to protect their data in these powerful but dangerous environments.
Software Engineering
We're entertaining proposals for books on UML, Design Patterns, XP, Aspect-Oriented Programming, and so forth. We're also seeking to strengthen our line of C and C++ books, and we're specifically interested in proposals for a C++ Cookbook. We're also interested in programming books that go beyond just being a "how to" book, and that impart hard-won programming wisdom to newer programmers.
Bioinformatics and Other Applied Sciences
Bioinformatics is the application of computer power to problems in genomics and the life sciences. We believe that bioinformatics, cheminformatics, and other applied sciences (as well as underlying disciplines such as machine learning) are going to be one of the major growth areas for the computer industry in the 21st century. MIT talks about "the three Os: bio, info, nano." We do too.
Big Picture Technology, Social Impact, and Geek Culture
Technology is changing the world. Our goal is to document those changes not just with hands-on books for practitioners but with ones that help the general public to understand the implications of technology. This includes books like Database Nation, which serves as a wake-up call about "the death of privacy in the 21st century," The Cathedral and the Bazaar, a seminal work of the Open Source movement, and Free as in Freedom, a biography of Richard Stallman. We'd like to do selected additional books like these. Some of the titles we wish we'd published (but that went to other publishers, because we weren't actively pursuing them) include The Cluetrain Manifesto, Emergence, and Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace.
In addition to these single-author works, we've done a number of successful anthologies, such as Open Sources and Peer to Peer, which showcase key leaders, concepts, and projects in important new areas.
In addition to these serious works, we're potentially interested in "geek culture" titles like Smileys and User Friendly.
What We Don't Know
We know there are topics out there that, in spite of our editors' best efforts, some of you will know about before we do. Let us know what interests you, and why. Surprise us; we're insatiably curious about interesting new technologies.
________________________________________


Chapter 2


My advice is about doorways, windowsills, and entrances and exits generally, but also bathrooms, boxes of tissues, sinks full of dishes, ice trays that need refilling, and so forth.


You'll find this kind of thing bunched up around your characters—just as a matter of absolute necessity, for instance, the better-left-unmentioned doors and windows have every room your characters inhabit completely surrounded, unless you've set your tale in a sarcophagus or generational spaceship or some other kind of sealed container—much as you discover such material lying at the edges of attention in your own everyday lives. The comings and goings, loosening and tightening of faucets, shittings and pissings and nose-blowings of everyday circumstances. Keep them at the periphery, in the subliminal range, unless you really want to try to make something of them, and then you'd better make it good. I'm trying to tell you to ignore transitions. Skip to the good stuff.


The sex and death, the monkey shines and money shots, the spit-takes, the epiphanies and pratfalls. The epiphanic pratfalls. What you'd remember when you forgot all the rest—forget the rest on your reader's behalf.


Write like you'd read—and notice how much you customarily skip as you read. Raymond Chandler said that when he was at a loss for a plot development he'd have a man walk through a doorway with a gun in his hand. Good advice I've heeded a hundred times or more, but it wasn't the doorway, it was the gun that might solve your problem.


Arrive without coming in, and leave without leave—leave before you leave, if you get my drift. End the scene with the glance at the door, if even the glance. And there's probably no writer who ever paused in his commitment to realism to consider how often a nose blown or a bladder emptied didn't quite rate mention.


Realism goes just so far. It's sort of like Chandler's gunman: unless you're blowing blood out of your nose, don't even reach for a tissue. A tissue full of nothing but snot is a dog-bites-man story. And so, having said his piece, the weary veteran wished the fresh novices good luck, and went out the door, shifting slightly to the left so as not to collide with the guy on his way in with a gun in his hand.


Wrimos, it’s Week Two: a notoriously tricky time in the month-long noveling process.


You’ve committed to your characters and this story you are developing. And you’ve written enough in these seven or so days that, if you’re starting to hate one or the other (or both), it feels too late to turn back.


But I come to you with good—no, great—tidings of noveling joy.


If you’re bored with, annoyed by, sick of, divorced from, totally over, or hurling tomatoes at your characters or plot, there’s no need to turn back, and zero reason to start over.


Erin Morgenstern told us in last week’s pep talk that when she got tired of her NaNo-novel, she sent her characters to the circus. And look where she is now!


This past weekend, my über-prissy main character was making me nuts with her stuffy, uptight behavior and old-fashioned judgements. She was meant to be irrepressibly optimistic; almost annoyingly joyful. Somehow she came out just annoying. I couldn’t bear to spend one more paragraph with her. And that was seriously slowing down my word count.


For the sake of my novel and my sanity these next three weeks, I quickly realized that I needed to let my MC’s freak flag fly. Within sentences, she had cast off her government-issue uniform (and with it, her insufferable inhibitions) and I had her flash-dancing to the Hair soundtrack on LP. Weird, but effective.


That alone hasn’t completely fixed the trajectory of my novel, but it sure helped me hang in there for the next 5,000 words.


If your novel has you down, don’t give up. Get kooky! Add an element (or an apple cart’s worth) of the unexpected and the outlandish to your characters and storyline alike.


We’re here to help with that, too!


This week, you’ll be getting a hefty NaNoVideo dose of Tavia’s world-famous dares. (These always provide helpful fodder for spicing up a soggy storyline.)


Author Jonathan Lethem will also be sharing his approach to keeping it interesting in novel town. (Spoiler alert: He lays down the gauntlet.)


If you're still up for even more ideas, visit the 100% non-boring Young Writers Program Dare Machine. (I just got dared to give my main character a disgusting habit. And I am going to do it! With relish.)


Word is out that the leaders over @NaNoWordSprints are laying down some epic challenges, too.


Before we write one more word of these normal, natural, rational, believable, and therefore dangerously snooze-worthy stories, let’s add some hot sauce!


C’mon, pour it on there.


I dare you.


one of my favorite subjects are food, trees, shrubs, tall grass, . . . food. But that really has nothing to do with the subject. What we're talking about here is a little different.
sub•ject (sub´-jikt) n.
A word or phrase in a sentence that denotes the doer of the action, the receiver of the action in passive constructions, or that which is described or identified.
That sounds pretty good in American Heritage, but all you really need to know about a subject is: a sentence has got to have one!
To find out which word is the subject of a sentence, just ask yourself two questions:
1. What's going on (or being described)?
2. Who or what is doing whatever is going on (or being described)?
If you can answer question 2, you've found the subject.
Let's take a look at some examples:
1. The butcher saves the scraps for his dog.
2. The dog devours them quickly.
3. The butcher was a good man.
4. The dog was quite satisfied.
5. Shelties and cocker spaniels are good pets for small children.
Ask yourself the two questions about each of these sentences. Decide what's going on or being described, and then ask yourself who? or what? is doing it or being described. You can see that in numbers 1 and 2 the butcher and the dog are doing something. They are the subjects.
In numbers 3 and 4, the butcher and the dog are being described. Again, they are the subjects. Pretty easy, huh? In number 5, you can see how a sentence may have more than one subject, shelties and cocker spaniels.
If you back up to the dictionary definition, it says something about the subject being the receiver of the action in a passive construction. Consider the next sentence:
The dog was given a bone.
There the dog receives the action--and the bone!--so it's the subject. But don't worry too much about passive constructions right now. We'll get back to them later.
This is awfully simple, but if you can't clearly identify the subject of a sentence, you're going to get into trouble later on when we talk about some of the harder stuff. For more help in identifying subjects, see the section on prepositions. 'Nuff said.
There's a "Self-Test" available on Subjects and Verbs, but you should review Verbsfirst.


verb (vûrb) n.
A part of speech that expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
Remember question one for identifying subjects? "What's going on (or being described)?" Answer that and you've found your verb. And like a subject, a sentence has got to have one!
Let's look at a few more examples:
1. Lassie ran into the burning building.
2. The beagle stepped on its ears.
What's going on in these sentences? A couple of dogs are doing stupid things; but what they are doing is the verb--in this case, Lassie ran and the beagle stepped . Both show action.
Got the idea? Now let's look at verbs that are a little different. Some verbs don't show action. Instead, they link the subject to some other information: these are called, big surprise, linking verbs . Common linking verbs are "to be" forms--such as, is, am,are, was, were--and the verbs appear, become, feel, look, seem. Examples are:
1. She was fond of her animals.
2. Pierre is a fine beast.
3. She looks like she has been in a fight with a cat.
4. It feels damp in the grass.
In identifying the verb, you also need to look for the helpers, since they are considered part of the verb. The helpers (aka auxiliaries) include: is, am, are, was,were, been, has, have, had, do, does, did, may, can, might, shall, will, should, could,would.
I've marked the complete verb in the following:
1. I was barking before breakfast.
2. He should have let me out of the house.
3. I tried to wait for him to get up.
4. He should not have stayed in bed so long.
5. I barked and waited until. . . .
I guess you can figure out what happened at the end of this little story. It's an all-too-frequent part of a dog's life. . . . But about the verbs.
Notice what is not included in the verb in numbers 3 and 4: to wait and not. Words with to in front of them are never a part of the verb, even though they look suspiciously like verbs. Words like not, always, just, never, and only are not part of the verb.
Remember how a sentence can have more than one subject? It can also have more than one verb, as you see in number 5. One other thing: no word with an "-ing" ending can ever be the verb without a helper: I barking; she running? No way!

prep•o•si•tion (prê´e-zish´en) n.
A word that indicates the relation of a substantive to a verb, an adjective, or another substantive.
I'm not sure I understand that definition, but it doesn't matter. Our only interest in these little words is how they can help us in finding subjects--or, better said, in how they can show us what can't be the subject.
A phrase is a group of words. A prepositional phrase is one that begins with a preposition, such as at, before, beside, between, by, during, for, from, in, over,under, with. You get the idea. If you find a word in a prepositional phrase (e.g., "in the doghouse," "across the street," "under the house"), it can't be the subject.
So when you have trouble finding subjects, just get rid of the prepositional phrases. That will narrow your search to what's left. Take a look at the following: (I've bolded the subjects and verbs for browsers that do not support the strike through tag.
1. During the football game, I snuck into the kitchen.
2. The scraps from dinner were in the garbage.
3. Except for ol' Doc, no one was at home.
4. With one nudge, I pushed the can on its side.
5. Until the end of the game, I could snack on the scraps with no fear of interruption.
See how easy it is to spot the subject once you cut the stuff that can't be one? Pretty simple, but it may come in handy when we get to subject-verb agreement.


Here you're going to need to know something about clauses, since comma-splices andfused sentences deal with two clauses that are incorrectly punctuated. (Some people call them run-ons.) Look at the following:
1. I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor I get in trouble.
2. I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor, I get in trouble.
Neither of these is correct. The first runs two main clauses together without any kind of punctuation. This is a fused sentence. The second joins two main clauses together with only a comma. This is a comma-splice. Both will get your instructor's attention!
What's the problem? Each main clause expresses a complete thought. If you run two or more complete thoughts together without the right punctuation, they tend to blur. And the whole idea behind any kind of communication is to get your point across clearly, right? Anything that takes away from that should be avoided.
What's the solution? Don't do it! How you "Don't do it!" is really pretty easy, since there are four ways to get rid of comma-splices or fused sentences. Find the problem clauses and
o separate them with a period (.).
I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor. I get in trouble.
o join them with a coordinating conjunction.
I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor, and I get in trouble.
o separate them with a semicolon (;).
I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor; I get in trouble.
o subordinate one clause.
When I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor, I get in trouble.
Which is best? They're all correct, so the choice is up to you. Just decide which way sounds the best with the rest of the sentences around the problem.

That's all you need to know about comma-splices and fused senten

The Doc has some fancy words for joiners like coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and who knows what else. But hey, a joiner is a joiner. Knowing their names is good, but knowing how they work is better!
Remember what I said about comma-splices and fused sentences? One way to correct them is to join two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction. You're thinking, "Fine, but what are they?" Just think "FANBOYS" and you have every single one of them:
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So . . . FANBOYS
Sure it's silly, but it's easy to remember. Look at the following examples and pay attention to where the commas go:
1. He threw the Frisbee, and I caught it.
2. I ran after the cat, but I couldn't catch it.
3. He filled up her food bowl, yet she wouldn't eat.
4. They wanted to go walking without me, so I gave them my saddest look.
5. I scratched my ear, for there was a bug in it.
(The use of for in the last sentence may sound funny to you. You'd probably be more comfortable with because. That's okay. Both are correct, but if you use because, drop the comma in this construction. Review the comments on punctuating subordinate clauses if you need to.)
Just pick the joiner that makes sense in your sentence, and put a comma in front of it. That's all there is to using coordinating conjunctions.
The second kind of joiner is a little different. Like the "FANBOYS," it joins two main clauses, but it also works as a transition (that is, it shows a logical relation between them).
Probably the most common transitional joiners are therefore and however. Others are:also, thus, in addition, otherwise, instead, as a result, meanwhile, on the other hand, and consequently.
With these, you have to watch your punctuation. You need a semicolon to separate the two main clauses and a comma after the joiner. (If you only use a comma between the two main clauses, you've created a comma-splice.)
1. I wanted to play in the backyard ; therefore, I went to the door.
2. I scratched and barked ; however, I couldn't get his attention.
3. Maybe he was working at the computer; on the other hand, he could have been asleep.
These should give you the idea; however, remember that we're talking about joiningtwo main clauses. Sometimes you'll find one of these transitional joiners used differently. For instance:
o He wanted to play. I, however, wanted to sleep.
o Peggy always tries to eat my food. Doc, therefore, always puts it on the kitchen table when I'm not eating.
Here, however and therefore do not join anything--they simply interrupt the flow of thought in the sentence. That's why they're only set off with commas.
Like most grammar basics, joiners aren't that hard to understand or to use. Just watch your punctuation, and you should have no problems


I got a hold of some bad pork chops the other day, and they didn't agree with me. Stomach aches aren't very pleasant. Don't you agree?
We all know these meanings of "agree," but when we talk about subject-verb agreement, we're talking about something different: matching subjects and verbsaccording to number. That is, when you have a singular subject, you have to match it with a singular verb form: The boy plays. When you have a plural subject, you must have a plural verb form: The boys play.
In short, simple sentences, you should have no problem with agreement. You can hear the problem: The boys plays. When it's wrong , it just sounds funny. However, there are four potential problem spots that you need to watch carefully:
o stuff in between the subject and verb
o reversed sentence order
o "-body," "-one," and "-thing" words
o "who," "which," and "that"
Stuff in between subjects and verbs
The stuff here is usually a prepositional phrase that separates the subject from the verb. Remember how we crossed out prepositional phrases in order to find the subject? (For a quick review, click here.) Do the same thing if you're having problems with agreement. Now, thinking about that, look at the following sentence and decide what's wrong with it:
The dishes in the kitchen is dirty.
Good guess! The subject and the verb don't agree. What's the probable cause for the problem? Kitchen (a singular noun) is right in front of is (a singular verb). If kitchenwere the subject, that would be okay. But, it's not. Cross out the prepositional phrase and you're left with:
The dishes in the kitchen is dirty.
"The dishes . . . is dirty?" Sounds wrong, doesn't it? The subject is plural, but the verb is singular. They don't agree. The correct version is:
The dishes in the kitchen are dirty.
Once you know how to look for this problem, it shouldn't be too hard to get rid of it when you proofread your paper.
Reversed sentence order
The normal pattern for English sentences is subject-verb. However, there are a few situations where this order is reversed (like this sentence):
o There are snacks on the laundry-room table.
o Where are they?
o On the table are the goodies!
See how the subject comes after the verb in each of these? If you can remember how to locate subjects and verbs, you shouldn't blunder into mistakes when writing reversed-order sentences.
"-body," "-one," and "-thing" words
The correct term for these words is indefinite pronouns, but if you remember them as "-body," "-one," and "-thing" words, you'll probably be able to spot them more easily. You only need to know one thing: if a word has one of these endings (like everybody,everyone, anyone, anything, etc.), it is always singular! You can also include each,either, and neither in this group. Look at the following:
1. Everyone is going on a picnic.
2. Each of the boys is taking his own lunch.
3. If anyone drops something to eat, I'll grab it before he can pick it up.
You shouldn't have problems with these if you simply memorize the endings of words that are always singular.
NOTE: We said that either and neither are always singular; however, if you have two subjects in an either . . . or or neither . . . nor construction, getting the agreement right may give you fits. To get it right, just locate the subject closest to the verb and make the verb agree with it:
o Either the mailman or the construction workers are causing Peggy to bark like crazy.
o Neither the dogs down the street nor the one next door pays any attention.
Compare this with the following:
o Either the construction workers or the mailman is causing Peggy to bark like crazy.
o Neither the one next door nor the dogs down the street pay any attention.
Agreement, in this case, depends on the placement of the subject.
"Who," "which," and "that"
Remember dependent clauses? They have a subject and a verb, but they can't stand alone. That's what we're dealing with here, but with a little something extra. Now we've got to consider pronouns. A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun that comes before it, usually in the same clause or one very close to it.
Peggy is a troublemaker. She bites my ears and steals my food.
"Who," "which," and "that" are pronouns. When they take the place of a singular noun, they are singular; when they take the place of a plural noun, they are plural. This is important to remember when they are the subject of a clause. Compare the following sentences:
1. Big Dog is one of those animals who are very intelligent.
2. Big Dog is an animal who is very intelligent.
In both, who is the subject of a dependent clause. In number 1, it takes the place ofanimals (a plural form). That's why "are" is the correct verb choice. In number 2, whotakes the place of animal (a singular form), and that's why "is" is correct.
This may seem a bit confusing at first, but there's a way to get it right every time. If you find "who," "which," or "that" introducing a dependent clause (like in the examples above):
1. Look at the word right in front of it (usually that's the word it takes the place of).
2. Decide if the word is singular or plural (that will tell you whether "who," "which," or "that" is singular or plural).
3. Make the verb agree!
That's all there is to it!


Pronouns are a handy way to keep from repeating nouns too much. Consider the following:
o When Big Dog snuck under the fence, Big Dog ran to the dumpster.
o When Big Dog snuck under the fence, he ran to the dumpster.
Clearly the second sentence sounds better.
When we talked about subject-verb agreement, we said that the subject and the verbmust agree in number. That is, you have to make sure that both are singular or both are plural. The same goes for pronouns and antecedents.
A pronoun renames (takes the place of) a noun that comes before it.
An antecedent is what we call the noun that comes before the pronoun.
Two examples should be enough:
1. I get worried when the neighbors let their dog out.
2. The dog goes wild, and he always messes up my front yard.
In number 1, neighbors is the antecedent; their is the pronoun. They agree becauseboth are plural. In number 2, dog is the antecedent, and he is the pronoun. They agreesince both are singular. If you are having problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement, underline all your pronouns; then, locate the antecedent for each. Make sure that both are the same in number. That's all you have to do.
With subject-verb agreement, we also talked about indefinite pronouns ("-one," "-body," and "-thing" words). With pronouns, we need to look at the "-one" and "-body" words again. (Also include "either," "neither," and "each.") These are always singular, and that should be easy enough to remember. But most beginning writers seem to have trouble with them. Part of the problem is the way we speak. Few would notice anything wrong if they heard someone say,
o Everyone needs to take their dog to the vet regularly.
o Everybody was enjoying their vacation.
These sound okay, right? Maybe so, but they're wrong if you're writing. Words like "everyone" and "everybody" are always singular, so the plural pronoun their can't agree with them. The correct
versions are:
o Everyone needs to take his dog to the vet regularly.
o Everybody was enjoying her vacation.
You could use his or her in either sentence, depending upon the context.
Sexism in the language
Some suggest that you should always use "he or she," "his or her," or "him or her" instead of simply using the masculine "he," "his," or "him." If you're worried about the sexist tradition of using masculine pronouns to refer to all people, then rewrite your sentences in the plural, as in "People need to take their dogs to the vet regularly." "The people were enjoying their vacations."
You could use "he or she" (etc.), but it sounds awkward and will eventually lead to an agreement problem--if it doesn't bore your readers to death first. For instance:
If an owner doesn't take proper care of his or her dog, then he or she will find his or her pet may suffer. The pet will be grateful to him or her if he or she takes care of his or her reponsibilities. When he or she . . . .
You may be an inexperienced writer, but you're not an inexperienced listener. That passage simply sounds dumb. Like I said, if you're worried about a sexist slant, go for the plurals!


o Having been thrown in the air, the dog caught the stick.
o Smashed flat by a passing truck, Big Dog sniffed at what was left of a half-eaten hamburger.
The best way to begin talking about dangling modifiers is to show you a couple so you can see the problem for yourself: the writer has unintentionally said something that he (or she) didn't intend. The dog wasn't "thrown in the air," and Big Dog wasn't "smashed flat." We can work out what is actually meant. But a reader shouldn't have to work things out.
Sentences like these are funny--but that's just the problem. Any time you draw attention to how you've said something instead of what you've said, your communication suffers. If you're writing something important, and I stop to chuckle over a faulty construction, the overall effect is lost.
So how do you get rid of these? Do the following:
1. Check for modifying phrases at the beginning of your sentences.
2. If you find one, underline the first noun that follows it. (That's the one that is being modified.)
3. Make sure the modifier and noun go together logically. If they don't, chances are you have a dangling modifier.
4. Rewrite the sentence.
Let's go back to the opening sentences and see how this works:
o Having been thrown in the air, the dog caught the stick.
o Smashed flat by a passing truck, Big Dog sniffed at what was left of a half-eaten burger.
Both sentences begin with a modifying phrase. In number 1, dog is the first noun that follows; in number 2, it's Big Dog. Neither one goes logically with the modifier, so we need to rewrite the sentences. Sometimes you can rework the noun into the phrase itself. Often, you have to completey revise. One possible correction for each sentence is:
o When the stick was thrown in the air, the dog caught it.
(Here, the modifying phrase has become a dependent clause. The meaning is clear.)
o Big Dog sniffed at what was left of a half-eaten burger that had been smashed by a passing truck.
(Again, the phrase has been retwritten as a clause.)
There are many ways to get rid of a dangling modifier. How you do it isn't that important, but being able to spot the problem and get rid of it is!


A modifier is a word or a phrase that describes something else. You should place it as close as possible to what it describes. If you don't, your intended meaning may not be clear. Consider the unintentional meanings in the following:
o The young girl was walking the dog in a short skirt.
o The dog was chasing the boy with the spiked collar.
You can see what's wrong. The dog isn't "in a short skirt" and the boy doesn't have a "spiked collar." Because the modifier is misplaced, we have to think for a minute before we get the intended meaning. The correct versions are:
o The young girl in a short skirt was walking the dog.
o The dog with the spiked collar was chasing the boy.
See how the proper placement clarifies the meaning?
You also need to watch the placement of modifiers such as almost, even, hardly,nearly, often, and only. A couple of examples should be enough:
1. Big Dog almost ran around the yard twenty times.
2. He nearly ate a whole box of treats.
In both sentences--when he "almost ran" and "nearly ate"--nothing happened! He didn't quite get around to doing either thing. What is intended is:
1. Big Dog ran around the yard almost twenty times.
2. He ate nearly a whole box of treats.
Remember: if you give your readers a chance to interpret something in more than one way, they'll usually get it wrong! By placing your modifiers correctly, you'll eliminate this possibility and have a better chance of getting your point across.


When we talk about parallel structure, or "faulty parallelism" as some call it, we're dealing with a balancing act. The idea isn't too hard, but most people don't think about it.
So what are we balancing? . . . pairs of words or series of words. Look at the following:
Pairs
a and b
a or b
Series
a, b, and c
a, b, or c
Looks kind of like an algebra equation, doesn't it?
Have no fear! This is a math free zone! Just think of the letters as standing for wordsor groups of words. Any words or groups of words that you plug in have to be thesame kinds of words or word patterns. That's all there is to it! Let's see how the "formula" works:
Pairs
running and jumping, bothered and bewildered, open or shut, laughing or crying
Series
broken, bedraggled, and bone-tired
an old shoe, a stuffed bear, and a chewed-up blanket
When you write your sentences using parallel structure, your ideas come across more clearly because they're easier to read. Compare the following sentences:
1. Peggotty's toys were an old shoe, a bear that was stuffed, and she had chewed up an old blanket.
2. Peggotty's toys were an old shoe, a stuffed bear, and a chewed-up blanket.
See how the second sentence is smoother and more balanced? If you 'll try to balance your own sentences in this way, your writing will be more forceful.

With reference, we're talking about pronouns again. If you recall, a pronoun is a word that renames (takes the place of) another word (the antecedent). It not only must agree with its antecedent (see agreement: pronoun-antecedent), but it must also clearly refer to the word it renames.
The problem?
If the pronoun doesn't clearly refer to its antecedent, you may cause confusion for your readers. And as we've said before, if you confuse your readers (and it's not that hard to do!), your communication breaks down.
The solution?
Whenever you find a pronoun in your writing, underline it and then draw an arrow back to the specific one word that it renames. If you can't find the word or there seem to be two or more words that it could refer to, you have a problem with reference. Remember: the antecedent must be in the preceding clause or phrase (the one right before the pronoun) if you want to make sure the reference is clear.
Now, let's take a look at a few examples:
1. The Doc always buys my dog food at the pet store because they are so friendly.
2. The owner told Doc that he was looking fit.
3. His brother is a cat breeder, but I'm not interested in it.
4. He tried to put the tape of 1001 Dalmatians in the VCR, but it was broken.
Try drawing an arrow from any of these italicized pronouns to the word they rename. Can't do it? That's because each is an example of a reference problem. Sometimes the problem is easy to fix; sometimes you've got to start all over again, as you can see in the following:
Look back at number 1. The problem is with they: who are they? To fix it, rephrase with something like
". . . because the owners are so friendly" or ". . . because the people who work there are so friendly."
With these changes, there is no problem with clarity.

In number 2, we don't know who was looking fit. Was it Doc or the owner? Fixing sentences like this one can be awkward, but here's one suggestion. "The owner told Doc, 'You look fit.'" Or, if you meant something else you could say, "The owner told Doc, 'I look fit.'"

With number 3, you have a different problem: it has no specificantecedent. The writer is trying to refer to the vague, unstated idea of "cat breeding," but you can't clearly refer to something that doesn't exist. One fix is: "His brother is a cat breeder, but I'm not interested in breeding cats."

In number 4, the pronoun could be referring to either the tape or theVCR. Since it can't refer to both, the meaning is unclear. One solution is: "He tried to put the tape of 1001 Dalmatians in the VCR, but the machinewas broken." Obviously, you could put "tape" in place of "machine" if that was what you meant.
Reference problems can create confusion in your writing, but if you know what they are and use the "underline and arrow" trick to check for them, they shouldn't cause you any trouble.
How about a "Self-Test" to see if you really understand.


We've talked about pronouns with regard to reference and agreement: pronoun-antecedent. Here we need to cover a few odds and ends, and some of this stuff may really sound odd to you. But these are a few things you should know.
Subjects and objects
First let's look at case--that is, the difference between the subject and object forms of the pronouns. We know what subjects are, and objects are those words that come at the end of prepositional phrases (among other things). You probably already know the differences, but just in case, here's a list of the forms:
Subject Object
I me
you you
he him
she her
it it
we us
they them
The only thing you need to know is that these forms can't be switched around. If the word is a subject, it must be a subject form; if it's an object . . . well, you get the idea. Consider the following:
o Peggy and me barked at the garbage truck.
o Her and me fought over the bone.
Some of you are probably thinking, "What's wrong with these?" In spoken English, you'll hear things like this every day. But in written English, you need to make sure your forms aren't mixed up. The correct versions are "Peggy and I" and "She and I," since the words are the subject of the sentence. Nothing in the object list can be a subject--ever! You wouldn't say, "Me barked" or "me fought"--unless you were trying out for a Tarzan movie.
The same goes for objects of prepositions. You can't use a subject form in a prepositional phrase.
o Big Dog fetched the paper for her and I.
o Peggy ran after John and she.
"For I"? "After she"? These can't be right, since both are in the subject list; but, they're used as objects of the preposition. The correct versions are "for me" and "after her." You shouldn't have as much trouble with these because you don't hear them misused quite as often in this way. But watch out for "just between you and I." That phrase gets a lot of use--even though "I" can't be an object. It's "just between you and me"!
With "to be" verbs
Now we get to the stuff that will sound odd to you. Remember when we talked about "to be" verb forms? (If you need a quick review, click here for a refresher.) Any time a pronoun comes after one of these verbs, the subject form is required.
o It is I.
o It was they.
o It is he.
I told you this would sound funny--but it's correct! So, all these years you've been saying, "It's me" and "It's them," and you've been wrong. Right or wrong, I can't bring myself to say, "It is I." "It's me" sounds more natural. The best thing to do when you write yourself into a construction like this is to rethink and rewrite in a different way. (If anyone tells you otherwise, just say "it was I" who told you.)
With "than" or "as"
Another common pronoun mistake happens in sentences where you use "than" or "as" to compare people or things:
o Peggy is smaller than I.
o The dog down the street is meaner than she.
o Dogs are as smart as they.
You want to use "me," "her," and "them," don't you? You could, but that wouldn't be right. The subject form of the pronoun always comes after "than" or "as." Why? There's an understood verb in the construction.
o Peggy is smaller than I (am).
o The dog down the street is meaner than she (is).
o Dogs are as smart as they (are).
You can see why the object form won't work: "me am," "her is," and "them are" are just plain wrong! Even though you probably hear these kinds of sentences used incorrectly, when you're writing you can get them right if you remember thatunderstood verb.
Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, and which
In addition to renaming another word (like all pronouns), relative pronouns often introduce added details in your sentences. They can also be used to ask questions. Look at the following:
1. Big Dog is the one who is a true grammar hound.
2. Peggy is the dog whom everyone loves to pet.
3. Whose ball is that?
4. She is the one that I like.
5. I want to know which dog trampled the flowers.
These won't cause you too much trouble most of the time. Just remember: when you write about people, use "who," "whom," and "whose." When you write about things, use "which." "That" can be used in either case.
You may, however, have trouble with who and whom. Who is a subject form, and whomis an object. Like the subject and object forms we talked about earlier, you can't switch these around. Let's take a closer look at two of the sentences you just read:
1. Big Dog is the one who is a true grammar hound.
2. Peggy is the dog whom everyone loves to pet.
In number 1, "who" is the subject of the relative clause; in number two, "whom" is theobject. "Fine," you're thinking, "but how do I know when to use 'who' or 'whom?'" You've got a 50/50 chance of getting it right, but you can better the odds if you'll do the following when you find a sentence like one of those above:
1. Mark the spot where "who" or "whom" should go.
2. Look at the group of words to the right of that mark.
Big Dog is the one _____is a true grammar hound.
Peggy is the dog _____ everyone loves to pet.
3. Since "who" or "whom" introduces a relative clause, there should be a subject and a verb in that group of words. (Remember clauses?)
_____is a true grammar hound.
_____everyone loves to pet.
4. If there is no subject, "who" is the right choice. It is the subject form and becomes the subject of the clause.
. . . who is a true grammar hound.
5. If there is a subject, "whom" is the right choice. It is the object form.
. . . whom everyone loves to pet.
Now that's not so hard, is it?
Reflexives
Reflexive pronouns are intensifiers that refer back to the doer of the action (the subject). You know the words: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,yourselves, themselves.
We often say things like, I'll do it myself, "She'll fix it herself," etc. There's really no problem--except when you use a reflexive in place of a subject or object form. Never write (or say) something like, "Send it either to my secretary or myself." Keep that in mind, and you should be okay.
Pronouns are little words, but they're often troublesome. That's why we've spent so much time on them. But enough, already!


I'm not much for dictionary definitions, but the one for consistency is a good starting point: agreement or logical coherence among things or parts. The "things or parts" that we're going to talk about here are verbs and pronouns. The "agreement or logical coherence" that applies to them is really pretty simple--so simple that you might overlook it in your writing.
Verbs: tense
To make sure your verbs are consistent, just check their tense (the time they refer to). If you're writing in the past tense, for example, don't shift into the present unless you've got a logical reason to do so. If you do, you may confuse your readers about when something happened or something is happening--and you'll be having a problem with consistency. Look at these examples:
1. When Peggy was a pup, she was so uncoordinated that she often falls down.
2. Big Dog barks at the moon, and Peggy crawled through the bushes.
In number 1, the first two verbs ("was") are in the past tense; the third ("falls") is in the present. Why? There's no logical reason for the shift, so the tense is inconsistent. Change "falls" to "fell" and you have no problem.
In number 2, the first verb ("barks") is in the present tense; the second ("crawled") is in the past. Again, there is no logical reason for the shift. Switch "crawled" to "crawls," and you're okay. (Obviously which verb or verbs you change will depend on the meaning of your sentences.)
If you haven't noticed, the key to all this is logical reason. If you need to make a tense shift for your ideas to make sense, then make it. If you write a sentence like, "Ilive in Amarillo, but two years ago I lived in Atlanta."--there's nothing wrong. You're showing a logical relation between the past and the present.
Pronouns: point of view
To make sure your pronouns are consistent, check their point of view (the person they refer to). Person is nothing more than identifying who is speaking or being spoken about. There are three types: first-person ("I," "we"); second-person ("you"); andthird-person ("he," "they").
Your point of view is inconsistent if you switch person without any "logical reason" (there's that phrase again). A couple of examples should give you the idea:
1. I like to eat when Peggy is in the backyard because you don't have to worry about her getting in the way.
2. Even though Doc tries to keep her in another room, you still have to worry.
Think about it. Why would "you" worry if "I" have a problem? I'm the one who's worried, so the sentence should show that: "I like to eat when Peggy is in the backyard because I don't have to worry. . . ." See the problem and how to fix it?
A final suggestion:
In both sentences, the problem occurs with a shift to "you." Simply avoid using "you"anywhere in your paper. It will help your problems with inconsistent point of view, and it will make your writing sound more objective (but that's different topic). Trust me on this one!


Remember our discussion of subjects? (If you need a review, click here.) A subject is "a word or phrase in a sentence that denotes the doer of the action [or] the receiver of the action in passive constructions."
To tell if a construction is active or passive simply look at the subject:
o If the subject is the "doer of the action," the sentence is active.
o If the subject is the "receiver of the action," the sentence is passive.
That's pretty easy. If you do something, you're active; if you have something done to you, you're passive. Compare the examples:
Active

o Peggy ate the bone.
o Big Dog chased the police car.
o We ate every bite of food.
Passive
o The bone was eaten by Peggy.
o The police car was chased by Big Dog.
o Every bite of food was eaten by us.
Generally, you want to make your sentences active whenever you can. Active sentences make your writing stronger, more forceful.


Lynda Barry’s Pep Talk
Dear Writer,
Reconsider your hand. Reconsider writing by hand. There is a kind of story that comes from hand. Writing which is different from a tapping-on-a-keyboard-kind-of-story. For one thing, there is no delete button, making the experience more life like right away. You can’t delete the things you feel unsure about and because of this, the things you feel unsure about have a much better chance of being able to exist long enough to reveal themselves. And the physical activity of writing by hand involves many parts of the brain which are used in story making such as time, place, action, characters, relationships, and moving forward across an entire connected gesture. And that’s just what goes on when we write a single
letter by hand.
Although word count goals may be harder to reach, your body will not feel as tired as it does after a day spent tapping buttons and staring at a lit screen, especially if you write a bit longer than you usually do.
Another thing to reconsider is reading over what you have written. If you can stand to wait 24 hours before you decide the fate of what you have written—either good or bad—you’re more likely to see that invisible thing that is invisible for the first few days in any new writing. We just can’t know what all is in a sentence until there are several sentences to follow it. Pages of writing need more pages in order to be known, chapters need more chapters. The 24 hour period will give you time to create more of the things the writing needs. 48 hours is even better, and a week is ideal.
Can you keep your story going for a week without reading anything over? You’ll find you can. You’ll find that being able to rely on this ability will help you let one word follow the next without fussing as much as you do when you believe it’s the thinking and planning part of your mind that is writing the story. There is another part of the mind which has an
ability for stories, for holding all the parts and presenting them bit by bit, but it’s not the same as the planning part of the mind. Nor is it the thing called ‘unconscious’—it is without a doubt quite conscious when we are engaged in the physical activity which allows it to be active. This something is what deep playing contains when we are children and fully engaged by rolling a toy car and all who are inside of it toward the table edge. The word imagination isn’t quite right for it either because it also leaves out the need for moving an object—a toy, a pen or pencil tip—across an area in the physical world. It’s a very old, human thing, using physical activity along with thing ‘thing’ that is neither all the
way inside of us nor all the way outside of us. Stories happen in that place between the two. The Image world isn’t anywhere else. A computer can give you a neat looking page, higher word count and delete and copy and past abilities, but they are poor producers of the thing the hand brings about much more easily: Right here, right now, the pane of paper that the paper windows and walls require to give is the inside view, the vista.
You can’t know what a book is about until the very end. This is true of a book we’re reading or writing.
Writing by hand is like walking instead of riding in a car. It’s slower, to be sure, but you’ll smell the smoke if you’re near a house that is about to burst into flame. You’ll hear the shouting from a fight about to break out in a back yard. You’ll be able to help the dog who comes running by with his leash attached and dragging behind him, and be able to help the person who has lost him calling his name. This will make writing more like living
and less like watching television.
When writing by hand, when the story dries up temporarily—as it always does, try keeping your pen in motion anyway by writing the alphabet a b c d e f g in the middle of the sentence a b c d e f g h i j k until the sentence rolls forward again on its own. Just keep your pen steadily rolling along through time, for a good time.
Best! Love!
Lynda Barry
To learn more about Lynda Barry’s work, visit her website!


Piers Anthony’s Pep Talk
Dear Writer,
You’re a fool. You know that, don’t you? Because only a fool would try a stunt as crazy as this. You want to write a 50,000 word novel in one month?! Do you have sawdust in your skull? When there are so many other more useful things you could be doing, like cleaning up the house and yard, taking a correspondence course in Chinese, or contributing your time and effort to a charitable cause? Whatever is possessing you?
Consider the first card of the Tarot deck, titled The Fool. There’s this young man traipsing along with a small dog at his heel, toting a bag of his worldly goods on the end of his wooden staff, carrying a flower in his other hand, gazing raptly at the sky—and about to step off a cliff, because he isn’t watching his feet. A fool indeed. Does this feel familiar? It should. You’re doing much the same thing. What made you ever think you could bat out a bad book like that, let alone write anything readable?
So are you going to give up this folly and focus on reality before you step off the cliff? No? Are you sure? Even though you know you are about to confirm the suspicion of your dubious relatives, several acquaintances, and fewer friends that you never are going to amount to anything more than a dank hill of beans? That you’re too damned oink-headed to rise to the level of the very lowest rung of common sense?
Sigh. You’re a lost soul. So there’s no help for it but to join the lowly company of the other aspect of The Fool. Because the fact is, that Fool is a Dreamer, and it is Dreamers who ultimately make life worthwhile for the unimaginative rest of us. Dreamers consider the wider universe. Dreamers build cathedrals, shape fine sculptures, and yes, generate literature. Dreamers are the artists who provide our rapacious species with some faint evidence of nobility.
So maybe you won’t be a successful novelist, or even a good one. At least you are trying. That, would you believe, puts you in a rarefied one percent of our kind. Maybe less than that. You aspire to something better than the normal rat race. You may not accomplish much, but it’s the attitude that counts. As with mutations: 99% of them are bad and don’t survive, but the 1% that are better are responsible for the evolution of species to a more fit state. You know the odds are against you, but who knows? If you don’t try, you’ll never be sure whether you might, just maybe, possibly, have done it. So you do have to make the effort, or be forever condemned in your own bleary eyes.
Actually, 50,000 words isn’t hard. You can write “Damn!” 50,000 times. Oh, you want a readable story! That will be more of a challenge. But you know, it can be done. In my heyday, before my wife’s health declined and I took over meals and chores, I routinely wrote 3,000 words a day, taking two days a week off to answer fan mail, and 60,000 words a month was par. Now I try for 1,500 and hope for 2,000. That will do it. If you write that much each day, minimum, and go over some days, you will have your quota in the month. On the 10th of the month of August, 2008, I started writing my Xanth novel Knot Gneiss, about the challenge of a boulder that turns out to be not stone but a huge petrified knot of reverse wood that terrifies anyone who approaches it. Petrified = terrified, get it? And by the 30th I had 35,000 words. That’s the same pace. If I can do it in my doddering old age—I’m 74—you can do it in your relative youth.
Of course you need ideas. You can garner them from anywhere. I noticed that our daily newspaper comes in a plastic bag that is knotted. The knot’s too tight to undo without a lot of effort, so I just rip it open to get at the goodies inside. It’s a nuisance; I wish they’d leave it loose. But I thought, maybe there’s this cute delivery girl who has a crush on me, and she ties a love-knot to let me know. Not that at my age I’d know what to do with a real live girl, but it’s still a fun fantasy. Okay, there’s an idea. I could use it in my fiction. Maybe even in a Pep Talk. The mundane world has provided me with an opening. It will do the same for you, if you’re alert.
Here’s a secret: fictive text doesn’t necessary flow easily. Most of the time it’s more like cutting a highway through a mountain. You just have to keep working with your pick, chipping away at the rock, making slow progress. It may not be pretty at first. Prettiness doesn’t come until later, at the polishing stage, which is outside your month. You just have to get it done by brute force if necessary. So maybe your ongoing story isn’t very original. That’s okay, for this. Just get it done. Originality can be more in the eye of the reader than in any objective assessment.
You can make it from a standing start, even from a foolish daydream when you should have been paying attention to the Pep Talk. You will want to try for a bit more quality, of course, and maybe a spot of realism. Garner an Idea, assemble some Characters, find a suitable place to start, and turn them loose in your imagination. Now go home and start your engines!
Piers
You can learn more about Piers Anthony’s writing here.


Kelley Armstrong’s Pep Talk
Dear Fellow NaNo Writer,
So it’s all over. How’d you do? If you hit 50,000 words, congratulations! If you didn’t, and you gave it your best shot, congratulations! Whether you achieved the word count goal or not, you now have a brand new story. So what do you think of it?
When you reflect back on what you’ve written, you may be thrilled. You may be amazed at what you’ve produced. Or you may not… You may be disappointed. You may even feel like you’ve just wasted a month and an awesome idea. You haven’t. Trust me. I’ve been there.
I first did NaNo in 2005. I’d been hearing about it for years. By then, I was already published myself, but I thought it would be a great exercise for members of the online writing community I host on my message board. To truly support and encourage members, though, I needed to take the challenge alongside them. And I knew exactly what I wanted to write—the first draft of an idea I’d been toying with for years, that of a young adult story set in my Otherworld universe.
So I wrote that novel, called The Summoning, and this summer, The Summoning was released and made it onto the New York Times children’s best seller list. And that sounds so much more impressive if I don’t point out that the novel I wrote for NaNoWriMo is not the same version that was published.
What NaNoWriMo gave me was a quick and dirty first draft, and by the end of it, I could see that my book had some good stuff…and it had some serious problems and missed opportunities. So I put it aside for a rest period and pondered how to fix it while I worked on my next contracted novel. The manuscript underwent significant revising, reworking and, yes, rewriting, before I let my agent take it to market.
If a multi-published author can’t expect to turn out a publishable first draft during NaNoWriMo, then neither should you. Of course, you could—some people do—but what NaNoWriMo has given you is at least two things you didn’t have on November 1.
The first reward will vary. Maybe you have a first draft you can work on. Or maybe you’ve realized that your idea wasn’t as novel-worthy as you thought. Or maybe, in the course of writing this book, you got an idea for another.
The last two may not seem as rewarding as the first, but they’re equally important. If you’ve been writing for a while, you probably have stories you’ve labored on for months, even years, before realizing the idea wasn’t novel-worthy. To hit that realization in a month frees you up to start something new without lamenting all the time you put into a story that didn’t work.
The second reward is one that every NaNoWriMo participant gets: one full month of writing practice. It’s a rare writer who publishes the first book they wrote—I didn’t—so practice is invaluable. And whether you dream of getting published or not, you have just spent a month discovering and exploring the joys of storytelling.
Oh, and in case you’re wondering, yes, I did hit 50,000 words this year. I just barely squeaked by with a win on Saturday, though. I can blame my near-miss on a month of book-touring and unexpectedly early edits, but I’m a full-time writer, so I really have no excuse for not hitting 50,000 words. For all of you who reached the goal words despite school or work or kids, I bow to you.
I’ll let you get back to your post-NaNo rest, right after I wish you good luck with your manuscript—this one or the next one. Because, even if you aren’t planning to edit this one, there will be a next one, right? I hope so. The world always needs more storytellers.
Kelley
You can learn more about Kelley Armstrong’s writing here.


Julianna Baggott’s Pep Talk
Dear NaNoWriMo Author,
You’re hearty stock. This is obvious. You don’t have prissy notions about the muse as some airy thing that sometimes does and sometimes does not alight on your shoulder. And I like this about you. It is, in fact, one of your most endearing qualities.
If you look at the world one way, it takes from you—it’s a thief of time, energy, creative mojo. But if you look at the world another way, it gives you an endless supply of motivation. Here are a few things that the world offers (in furious fistfuls) that get my butt into the chair: petty jealousy, the chip on my shoulder (a slight deformity I was born with), my kids’ pending orthodontia bills, guilt of the Catholic variety, rejection, and, on a Freudian level: my parents’ love.
And now my tips:
Polish your jealousy to a high shine—like the chrome of a well-loved Mustang.
My jealousy took the form of the phrase “two-book deal with Dutton.” My student, Sharon Mitchell, who went on to become #2 on the African American Bestseller’s list for her first novel Nothin’ But the Rent, had just gotten a two-book deal with Dutton. I hadn’t. I was her teacher. I’d been at this, seemingly forever. She was a psychologist, dabbling in the novel. This phrase haunted me: “two-book deal with Dutton, two-book deal with Dutton.” Luckily, I couldn’t shake it. At that point we were running a boarding house out of our home, and my desk was in the living room. Every night I went to bed, after turning off my computer, late at night, and it had a light that, even when the computer was off, blinked at me across the room. Each time it blinked it said, “Two-book deal with Dutton, two-book deal with Dutton.”
Ditto the chip on your shoulder. Treat it well. Feed it crackers, and maybe it’ll turn into a parakeet—one of those blue ones who knows how to cuss.
Luckily I was born a scrawny fourth child after a suspiciously long gap. I was forever trying to prove that I could hang with the conversation, that I was a good enough athlete to be chosen for Kick-the-Can-Dodge-Ball (a virulent strain of Kick the Can that entailed hurling a ball at someone when you snuck up on them in a hiding spot). I eventually grew into a vicious field hockey player in high school, known for shoving in the box. I liked the tall itchy socks, the pleated skirts, the wooden sticks, even the mouth guards, but most of all I liked that I was shorter and scrawnier than everyone else on the field—because they expected nothing from me. If you lavish the chip on your shoulder, you will always be the underdog, and I’ve found this—for me—is the best place to write from. Every insult, every slight, every underestimation—I take comfort in these days, because I know they’re rocket fuel.
Stare at your children’s crooked teeth or imagine the crooked teeth of your imaginary children. If this doesn’t work, jump straight to college tuition. This writing could pay off at some point.
Nowadays, I write because it’s my job. I go to work, just as any fishmonger would, and at the dinner table, we often end up talking about the business as a fishmonger would talk about the discount prices he’s got going on salmon. I write because I have four kids, and although kids start out pretty cheap—especially the breastfed variety—they do add up. Frankly, almost anything times four is pricey—-like jimmies on ice cream. (Do they all need jimmies on their ice creams? Turns out, they do.) Piano lessons times four. Orthodontia times four. College education times four. It gets ugly quickly. And although I’d write if I made no money whatsoever, I do use money as a motivation. And, who knows? You could sell this novel you’re working on … It’s been done … Regardless, if money motivates you, use it.
Remember Vocation Day at your grade school. If you’ve got a nun rattling around in there, remember how she told you not to ignore a gift from God. Try to think of writing as a gift—more complexly put: it is the curse and the cure.
For me, writing has become like breathing—a necessary exchange with my environment. If I get too much air, hold my breath, I’ll pass out. If I take too many breaths, I hyperventilate. Writing is how I sort the world. I allow it its mess. I don’t make sense of it. I witness and rummage until I feel better. The more I write, the more I need to write? Maybe. Maybe so.
As for my nun, yes, I had a good one. Sister John Marie. Faith is involved in this writing curse and cure—but I’d rather not go into all of that here. (You’ve got a novel to write. I won’t dawdle.)
Invite rejection in. Offer it a drink. Become pals-y-wals-y. Don’t fight it even when it goads you with inflammatory politics and ribald jokes.
This business offers endless opportunities for rejection—even in the most successful careers. (At a certain point, you just have the opportunity to fail bigger, no?) In any case, rejection is guaranteed. And if you haven’t been rejected as a writer yet, look forward to it. And when it happens, cherish it. It’s a sign of authorial authenticity. Also, rejection is a spur, if you see it the right way. A beautifully sharp spur.
When all else fails, call your parents just to talk about the weather and termites and hip replacements.
We all want our parents’ love. We might hide it – most of all from ourselves. But it’s there so you may as well use it, too, on top of all else.
Plus, a reminder of your own mortality can do wonders to drive you to the page.
That’s a sampling of what gets my butt in the chair.
What keeps it there? (This is the most important part. In fact, if you get this part, you can forget all of the above.)
A love of this mad work, the thrumming in the chest, this pure desire to tell it.
Julianna Baggott
You can learn more about Julianna Baggott’s writing here.

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Tag der Veröffentlichung: 01.12.2011

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